A History of Indian Art and Architecture.kmz

A History of Indian Art and Architecture

A History of Indian Art and Architecture
Hariti and her children. Greco-Gandharan sculpture, 300 AD.
Photo from Jennifer Gowan, U of Oregon
Few cultures have as long a history of their artistic expression as India and even fewer have shown a comparable resiliency: Over five millenia India has successively absorbed the creative impulses of the Indus Valley Civilization, the Indio-European and Vedic tribes, of the Greeks who followed Alexander of Macedonia, Kushans, Parthians, Mongols, and.Turks and melded them into a syncretic artistic idiom which eventually even turned 400 years of Islamic influence into an thoroughly Indian product: When we think of India today it is the Taj Mahal and 1001-Nights that come to mind.
The Indian icon, the Taj Mahal in Agra, 17th cent.
Photo Wikipedia
An examination of the sculptural record of this development shows another pecularity of Indian art. In no other culture does the female play a comparable role: from the early Greek-Gandharan depictions of Hariti and the temples of Kajuraho to the Taj Mahal woman is celebratated with a sensous voluptuousness and an explicit power, that may well be the chief characteristics of Indian art - and its secret source of strength.
The western side of the Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Kajuraho, 1050 AD.
Photo by RWFG
It was left to the British Victorians to turn this Indian exuberance into a narrow-minded Christian morality in exchange for economic success and a Western education. Cricket replaced the Kamasutra....
This post traces the development of Indian art and architecture across the subcontinent, shows their varied sources and the up and downs of their development. I primarily tried to present pictoral evidence and avoid loaded arguments about Aryan vs. Dravidian styles or the non-identity of Indus, Harappan and Vedic cultures. I also tried to find dates for all objects, buildings and periods - which is not the greatest strength of Indian archeology and art history.

History of India Timeline
For a selected history go to "Historical Atlas of India" below.
Mehrgarh Culture • 7000–3300 BC
Indus Valley Civilization 3300–1700 BC
Late Harappan Culture 1700–1300 BC
Vedic period 1500–500 BC
Iron Age 1200–300 BC
Maha Janapadas • 700–300 BC
Magadha Empire • 545 BCE - 550
Maurya Empire • 321–184 BC
Middle Kingdoms 250 BC–1279 AD
Chola Empire • 250 BC–1070 AD
Satavahana • 230 AD–220 AD
Kushan Empire • 60–240 AD
Gupta Empire • 280–550 AD
Pala Empire • 750–1174 AD
Rashtrakuta • 753–982 AD
Islamic Sultanates 1206–1596
Delhi Sultanates • 1206–1526
Deccan Sultanates • 1490–1596
Hoysala Hindu Empire 1040–1346
Kakatiya Empire 1083–1323
Ahom Kingdom 1228–1826
Vijayanagara Hindu Empire 1336–1646
Mughal Empires 1526–1858
Maratha Empire 1674–1818
List from Wikipedia

General Placemarkers

Muziri Archeological Site
This marker is part of a "History of Indian Art and Architecture." It includes a Historical Atlas of India and Pakistan. To see the photos and maps and read the descriptions you need to download the entire post.
Muziri Archeological Site 1st cent. BC
Roman gold coins of the 1 st cent BC (Tiberius, Nero) found in Muziri in 1984. Photo indianchristianity.com
For more on the Greek-Roman presence in Southern India and the early Jewish, Christian and Islamic communities in Kerala see Wikipedia

Jewish Quarter Cochin
This marker is part of a "History of Indian Art and Architecture." It includes a Historical Atlas of India and Pakistan. To see the photos and maps and read the descriptions you need to download the entire post.
Street in the Jewish quarter of Cochin near the synagogue. Photo

Matancherry Synagogue
This marker is part of a "History of Indian Art and Architecture." It includes a Historical Atlas of India and Pakistan. To see the photos and maps and read the descriptions you need to download the entire post.
The Interior of the synagogue. Notice the blue Dutch tiles! Photo keralavaillagehomestay.com

St. Thomas Church
The Church of Mar Thomas. Founded originally by the Syrian (Aramaic speaking) Thomas the Apostle in 52 AD this is one of the oldest Christian communities. Presently it has some 10 Mill members distributed across 9 Syriac religious communities mostly in Kerala.
For more information see Wikipedia

Mount Abu
Photos Russian Website

Peshawar
Before the Americans, before the Russians there were the British in Peshawar. In the late 1930s, a platoon of the elite Royal Garhwal Rifles, commanded by British officers, was stationed at Peshawar.... the story continues at http://mod.nic.in/Samachar/april01-05/body.html

Allahabad
Allahabad, Maha Kumbh Mela 2001
Nagas. Maha Kumbh Mela Allahabad India. This was the largest gathering of 40 milj Hindus ever in the world. It takes place every 12 years in Allahabad, India. The purpose of the gathering is the ritual bathing at the confluence of the Ganga and the Yamuna river on the most prospicious time. This was in Jan-Feb 2001 and the most important day was 24 Jan 01. Photo Jean-Pierre Verbeke

Chennai Adjar Theosophical Society
You know who that is?

Bangalore-Bengalure
A streak of sun over Bangalore aka Bengalure. Photo grandpoohbah.net

Indus Valley Cultures 7000-1900 BC

Indus Valley-Harappa 7000-1900 BC

Indus Valley Civilization 7000-1900 BC
A map of the major archeological sites of the Indus Valley. Map from crystallinks.com
The Indus civilization was predated by the first farming cultures in south Asia, which emerged in the hills of what is now called Balochistan, to the west of the Indus Valley. The best-known site of this culture is Mehrgarh, established around 6500 BCE. These early farmers domesticated wheat and a variety of animals, including cattle. Pottery was in use by around 5500 BCE. The Indus civilization grew out of this culture's technological base, as well as its geographic expansion into the alluvial plains of what are now the provinces of Sindh and Punjab in contemporary Pakistan and Northern India.
By 4000 BCE, a distinctive, regional culture, called pre-Harappan, had emerged in this area. (It is called pre-Harappan because remains of this widespread culture are found in the early strata of Indus civilization cities.) Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making. Villagers had, by this time, domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as a wide range of domestic animals, including the water buffalo, an animal that remains essential to intensive agricultural production throughout Asia today.
The Indus civilization is still poorly understood. It seems to have died out around 1900 BC without leaving an archeological trace. Its undeciphered writing system vanished until Ashoka's introduction of a new, unrelated style of writing Pakrit (2nd cent BC).
Among the Indus civilization's mysteries are fundamental questions, including its means of subsistence and the causes for its sudden disappearance beginning around 1900 BC (Vedic incursions?). We do not know what language the people spoke. We do not know what they called themselves.

Mehrgarh
7000-2600 BC
Mehrgarh, 7000BC - 2600BC
Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization.
Early farming village in Mehrgarh, c. 7000 BC, with houses built with mud bricks. .
Archaeologists divide the occupation at the site into several periods. Mehrgarh Period I 7000 BC–5500 BC, was Neolithic and aceramic (i.e., without the use of pottery). The earliest farming in the area was developed by semi-nomadic people using plants such as wheat and barley and animals such as sheep, goats and cattle. The settlement was established with simple mud buildings with four internal subdivisions. Numerous burials have been found, many with elaborate goods such as baskets, stone and bone tools, beads, bangles, pendants and occasionally animal sacrifices, with more goods left with burials of males.
Mehrgarh Period II 5500 BC–4800 BC and Merhgarh Period III 4800 BC–3500 BC were ceramic Neolithic (i.e., pottery was now in use) and later chalcolithic. Much evidence of manufacturing activity has been found and more advanced techniques were used. Glazed faience beads were produced and terracotta figurines became more detailed. Figurines of females were decorated with paint and had diverse hairstyles and ornaments.
Clay figurines from Mehrgar (3000 BC). Photo from crystallinks.com
Somewhere between 2600 BC and 2000 BC, the city seems to have been largely abandoned, which is when the Indus Valley Civilisation was in its middle stages of development. It has been surmised that the inhabitants of Mehrgarh migrated to the fertile Indus valley as Balochistan became more arid due to climatic changes.
Text and photos (except where noted) from Wikipedia"

Nausharo 5000 BC - 2600 BC
Nausharo like Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization.

Amri is the site of a Pre-Harappa fortified town which flourished from 3600 to 3300 BC.
The site is located in the Sindh province of Pakistan. Situated near foothills of ther Kirthar mountains, this was an important earlier urban center in Lower Sindh. Amri is close to Baluchistan where development of earlier farming communities from 6000 - 4000 BC ultimately led to urbanization. On timeline, Amri is dated after Rehman Dheri.
The ancient mounds of 8 hectares on the west bank of Indus River have been extensively excavated. The pottery discovered here had its own characteristics and known as Amri Ware. Like other Pre Harappa towns, no writings were found at this site. There is evidence of widespread fire at the town around 2500 BC.

Harappa 3300-1600 BC
The ancient city is believed to have had as many as 40,000 residents, €”considered large for its time. Although the Harappa Culture extended well beyond the bounds of present day Pakistan, its centres were in Sindh and the Punjab.
Public well in Harappa.
A large number of seals were found in Harappa. This complex seal depicts a deity with horned headdress and bangles on both arms, standing in a pipal (sacred fig) tree and looking down on a kneeling worshiper. A human head rests on a small stool. A giant ram and seven figures in procession complete the narrative. The figures wear a single plumed headdress, bangles on both arms and long skirts.
Another collection of Harappa seals with examples of the Indus Valley script.
In Harappa large numbers of small terracotta figurines have been found recently (1991). Some may have been votive figures other were apparently children's toys!
Collection of burial pottery without painted designs. These vessels come from one of the later burials towards the end of the Harappan period, possibly dating to 1900 B. C.
Photos and captions from harappa.com

Mohenjo Daro 2600-1700 BC
Mohenjo-daro (Mound of the dead) was a city of the Indus Valley Civilization built around 2600 BC and is located in the Sindh Province of Pakistan. This ancient five thousand year old city is the largest of the Indus Valley and is widely recognized as one of the most important early cities of South Asia and the Indus Valley Civilization. Mohenjo Daro was one of the world'€™s first cities and contemporaneous with ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations. It is sometimes referred to as "The Ancient Indus Valley Metropolis".
The lower city. The higher city is seen in the background. The round tower on top of the hill ia a much later (2nd cent AD) Buddhist stupa.
This is an ongoing excavtion site: Brick houses on "First Street". The right side is still unexcavated. Photos from imagesofasia.com
The socalled Priest King, one of few sculptures found in Mohenjodaro. Height of figure: 17 cm. Photo from harappa.com

Lothal
Lothal was one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilization. Located in the modern state of Gujarat and dating from 2400 BCE, it is one of India's most important archaeological sites that dates from that era. Discovered in 1954, Lothal was excavated from 1955 to 1960 by the Archaeological Survey of India.
Lothal was connected to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between the Harappan cities in the Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert of today was part of the Arabian Sea. It was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa.
Lothal's people were responsible for the earliest-known portrayals of realism in art and sculpture, telling some of the most well-known fables of today. Its scientists used a shell compass and divided the horizon and sky into 8x€“12 whole parts, possibly pioneering the study of stars and advanced navigation €”2000 years before the Greeks. The techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in metallurgy have stood the test of time for over 4000 years.
For a detailed article on the latest excavations see Wikipedia.

Surkotada
2100-1700 BC
The site at Surkotada is located 160 km (99 mi) north-east of Bhuj, in the district of Kutch, Gujarat. The ancient mound stands surrounded by an undulating rising ground clustered by small sandstone hills. These hills are covered with red laterite soil giving the entire region a reddish brown colour. The vegetation is scarce and consists of cactus, small babul and pilu trees and thorny shrubs. These give green patches to the red environment. The mound was discovered in 1964 by Shri Jagat Pati Joshi of the Archaeological Survey of India. The mound is higher on the western side and lower on the eastern side and has an average height of 5 to 8 m. In the ancient days, a river 750 m wide flowed past the north-eastern side of the site. This river, which emptied into the Little Rann, might have been an important reason for siting the town here. Now this river is only a small stream.

BMAC Post Indus Valley 2000- 600 BC

BMAC Complex 2200-1700 BC
See the Maps at the end of the Post.
The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (or BMAC, also known as the Oxus civilization) is the archaeological designation for a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia, dated to ca. 2200–1700 BC, located in present day Turkmenistan, northern Afghanistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan, centered on the upper Amu Darya (Oxus). Its sites were discovered and named by the Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi (1976).
The BMAC and its successors in the Gangetic plains did not derive from the Indus Valley Civilizations. The later cultures have different burial cultures (cremation vs. shaft purials) and different city structures.
Sarianidi's excavations from the late 1970s onward revealed numerous monumental structures in many different sites, including Namazga-Depe ("governmental centre"), Altyn-Depe ("secondary capital"), Delbarjin, the Dashly Oasis, Toholok 21, Gonur, Kelleli, Sapelli, and Djarkutan. The sites were fortified by impressive walls and gates. Reports on the BMAC were mostly confined to Soviet journals until the last years of the Soviet Union, so the findings were largely unknown to the West until Sarianidi's work began to be translated in the 1990s.
Scholars do not agree on either the origins of the Bactria-Margiana complex, or the reasons for its decline. Its distinctive material culture disappears from the archaeological record a few centuries after it appears. Radiocarbon dating attributes the complex to the last century of the 3rd millennium and the first quarter of the 2nd millennium BC.
It is not known whether BMAC was an ethnically or linguistically coherent culture. Some people suggest that it was related to the Vedics which began to move south around that time.

Tepe Fullol 2500 - 2000 BC
Tepe Fullol BMAC 2500-2000 BC
In 1978 the Greek-Russian archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi unearthed an archeological surprise at Tepe Fullol: a gold bowl from 2500-2000 BC. The finds were deposited in the Nat. Museum of Kabul and were believed lost, but they were rediscovered in a safe in Kabul in 2005. Sarianidi considers the site to be part of the large Baktria-Margiana-Archeological-Complex. At this time we don't know who the people were or where they came from.
Gold bowl 2500-2000 BC (Tepe Fullol) from the National Museum in Kabul Photo from National Geographic Magazine
Female head 2000 BC. Photo from Wikipedia

The Ruins of Balkh, clearly visible on GE
Balkh was one of the major cities of Khorasan. It was located in a Persian-speaking area of eastern Persia.
The ancient city of Balkh, the oldest in today's Afghanistan, is associated with the Vedic name Bhakri, which later became Bactra for the Greeks, giving its name to Bactria. It was mostly known as the centre and capital of Bactria or Takharistan. Balkh is now for the most part a mass of ruins It is considered to be the first city to which the Indo-Iranian tribes moved from the North of Amu Darya, approximately between 2000 - 1500 BC.
From the Memoirs of Xuanzang, we learn that, at the time of his visit in the 7th century, there were in the city, or its vicinity, about a hundred Buddhist convents, with 3,000 devotees, and that there was a large number of stupas, and other religious monuments. In 1220 Genghis Khan sacked Balkh, butchered its inhabitants and levelled all the buildings capable of defense — treatment to which it was again subjected in the 14th century by Timur. Notwithstanding this, however, Marco Polo could still describe it as "noble and a great city."

Mingora 1700 BC-1st cent AD
Mingora (also spelled Mangora or Mingaora) is the largest city in the Swat.
Many Buddhist remains and carvings have been discovered near Mingora in the Jambill River Valley. At Panr, a stupa and monastery dated to the 1st century AD has been excavated.
At Loebanr and Matalai, Italian archaeologists unearthed 475 Aryan(?) graves dated around 1700 BC.

Hastinapur 1900-600 BC
Hastinapur, Post Indus Valley Cultures 1900-600 BC
Hastinapura was the capital of the kingdom of the Kauravas, belonging to the Kuru dynasty of kings. The throne of this city was the prize over which the Kurukshetra War of the epic Mahabharata was fought.

Ahichhatra 1900-600 BC
Ahichhatra, Post Indus Valley Cultures 1900-600 BC
Ahichhatra, the capital of Northern Panchala has been discovered near Ramnagar Village of Aonla Tehsil . It was during the first excavations at Ahichhatra (1940-44) that the "painted grey-ware" was discovered which now characterizes the appearance of the Vedics in the Ganga-Yamuna Valley,

Aligrama Prehist Graves 1000 BC
Aligrama Prehistoric Gandharan Grave Culture 1000 BC

Greek Seleucid Empire 312 BC – 63 BC

Seleucid Empire 323 - 60 BC
The Seleucid Empire (323 - 60 BC) was a Hellenistic successor state of Alexander the Great's dominion.
Alexander's generals (the Diadochi) jostled for supremacy over parts of his empire, and Ptolemy, one of his generals and satrap of Egypt, was the first to challenge the new rule, leading to the demise of Perdiccas. His revolt led to the "Partition of Triparadisus" in 320 BC.
Seleucus, who had been "Commander-in-Chief of the camp" under Perdiccas since 323 BC but helped to assassinate the latter, received Babylonia, and from that point continued to expand his dominions ruthlessly. Seleucus established himself in Babylon in 312 BC, the foundation date of the Seleucid Empire. He ruled over not only Babylonia, but the entire enormous eastern part of Alexander's empire:
Quote
"Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus."
Appian of Alexandria (95- 165 AD), Roman History
Seleucus made peace with Chandragupta Maurya, who had stopped Alexander's advance, by trading some of his territory against 500 war elephants!
These political events had little impact on India. However the craftsmen and artists who worked for the Greeks - although they were not all Greek - changed the sculpture, architecture and sensibility of Indian art for the next 400 years. The Hellenistic Greeks provided the most important source of Buddhist Indian and Southeast Asian art.

Ai-Khanoum 3rd-2nd cent BC
Ai Khanoum or Alexandria on Oxus 329 BC.
Alexandria on Oxus was founded, probably by Hephaestion, during Alexander the Great's campaigns in Bactria and Sogdia . It was a refoundation of an older, Persian city, and was settled with Greek and Iranian veterans, and native serfs.
Greek clay sculpture from the 2nd cent BC. Photo from National Geographic Magazine
Hellenistic Sculpture, Ai Khanoum, 3rd cent BC.
From Dorothy Lobel King's blogpage Photograph © Thierry Ollivier / Musée Guimet, Paris.
Today, the town is called Ai Khanum, which means "Lady Moon" in Uzbek It was excavated by French archaeologists and looks surprisingly like a Greek city, including temples, a heroön, palace, colonnaded courts, city walls, gymnasium, houses, Corinthian columns, free-standing statues, and a theater wth 5,000 seats. The citadel, which is on a 60 m high loess-covered natural mound, has not been investigated yet.
Among the finds are Greek and Indian coins, several inscriptions, sundials, jewelry, a famous plate showing the Phrygian goddess Cybele, the Greek god Helios, and an Iranian fire altar.
Text and second photo from Livius

Ferghana Valley 3rd -1st cent BC
In 329 BC, Alexander the Great founded a Greek settlement, the city of Alexandria Eschate in the southwestern part of the Ferghana valley. There are indications that from Alexandria Eschate the Greco-Bactrians may have led expeditions as far as Kashgar and Ürümqi in Chinese Turkestan, leading to the first known contacts between China and the West around 220 BC.
Zhang Qian (126 BC) calls the people of Ferghana Dayuan, possibly descendants of the Greek colonists (Da Yuan might be a transliteration of "Great Ionians"). Ferghana-Dayuan was renowned for its Heavenly Horses which the Chinese tried to obtain with little success until they waged war against them in 104 BC.
Zhang Qian describes the Dayuan as unusual in features, with a sophisticated urban civilization, similar to that of the Bactrians and Parthians: "The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Ferghana (Dayuan) and the possessions of Bactria and Parthia are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people, but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China" (Hou Han Shu).

Alexandria Eschate 3rd-1st cent BC
Alexandria Eschate was founded by Alexander the Great in 329 BC as his most advanced base in trhe Fergana Valley. Chinese historical records of the Han Dynasty describe the embassy of Zhang Qian to Alexandria Eschate around 130 BC. He encounteredt the Dayuan there, probably the last descendants of Alexander's Greeks. If so, this was the the first major interaction between an urbanized Indo-European culture and the Chinese civilization, which led to the opening up the Silk Road from the 1st century BC.

Buddhist Gandhara

Gandhara Overlay Map
This post is part of a "Historical Atlas of Eurasia" which can be downloaded from the post.
Map of the Ghandara archeological sites, from kalandarshan.arts.ohio-state.edu

Gandhara 180 BC - 1200 AD
Gandhara 180 BC- 11th cent AD
The region shows an influx of southern Central Asian culture in the Bronze Age with the Gandhara grave culture showing a continuum between the early neolithic culture of the region with close ties and relations with the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex. This culture survived till 600 BC. Its evidence has been discovered in the hilly regions of Swat and Dir, and even at Taxila (Malayo, Melanesian, Wabanaki, Nahuatl Cultures)
The Kingdoms of Gandhara (Greco-Bactrians, Sakas, and Indo-Parthians) lasted from 180 BC to the 11th century. Ghandara attained its height during the 1st - 5th cent AD under the Buddhist Kushan emperors. After it was conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1021 AD, the area became Moslem and the name Gandhara disappeared.
Gandhara is noted for the distinctive Gandhara style of Buddhist art, a consequence of a unique merger of Hellenistic, Syrian, Persian, and Indian artistic traditions. This development started in the Parthian Period (50 BC – 75 AD). The visual appearance of the Greco-Gandharan sculptures is most intriguing. Three examples follow (Text and images from Wikipedia)
Head of a Buddha, Gandharan Greco-Buddhist sculpture from Hadda, 1st cent AD
The Buddha with Herakles as Vajrapani, Gandharan Greco-Buddhist relief, 2nd-3rd cent AD
Buddha in Paranirvana surrounded by Greek disciples, Gandharan Greco-Buddhist relief, 2ndh-3rd cent AD
For a detailed time table see the History of Ghandara and Afghanistan, 5th Millenium BC - 2001 AD

Swat 3000 BC - 800 AD
The Swat 3000 BC- 800 AD
Rock-carved Buddha near Janabad, Swat, 7th-8th cent. AD
The Swat comprises several valleys which empty into the Swat river. The area has been inhabited since prehistoric times (3rd millenia BC).
Around the 3rd cent AD it became an important Buddhist center (Udayana).Some 1400 stupas and monasteries were spread throughout the valley. The Chinese travelers Faxian (337 - 422 AD) and Xuanzang (602 - 664 AD) have left us detailed descriptions of these times.
The Indo-Buddhist Tantra (9th cent AD) probably originated here and spread from the Swat to Tibet. Padmasambhava is said to have been born in the Swat, the "Guru from Udayana".
In the 11th cent AD Islam was introduced by Mahmud of Ghazni who invaded the area. The Buddhist monuments went into decay and have only recently been excavated. The Swat became part of Pakistan during the Indian division.
For Information on the Harappan culture 3200-2600 BC see Wikipedia, Early Harappan
The Swat Grave Culture 1600 - 500 BC at Aligrama is described in Wikipedia, Gandhara Grave Culture
A cultural history of the Swat is found at Svatvalley.com
.

Udegram 10th BC - 14th cent AD.
Udegram is located 8 kilometres from Saidu Sharif. Aurel Stein identified this with Ora, a city where Alexander fought one of his battles. Italians excavated this site in the 1950’s. This site was occupied from 1000 BC to 14th century AD.
The "Bazaar", excavation site of the lower city (Arrian’s Ora) which Alexander stormed (4th cent BC - 4th cent AD)
Phto and dates from

Gogdara 1100 BC
Based on the sherds found, the nearest settlement was inhabited continously between the 12th cent. BC and the Parthian period
Gogdara also has prehistoric(?) rock carvings.

Taxila 6th cent BC- 5th cent AD
Taxila, 6th cent BC - 5th cent AD
Stupa at Taxila-Sirkap, decorated with Hindu, Buddhist, and Greek tsculpturess. Photo and text from Wikipedia
Taxila is an archaeological site in Pakistan containing the ruins of the Gandharan city of Takshashila (also Takkasila or Taxila) an important Vedic/Hindu and Buddhist centre of learning from the 6th BC century to the 5th cent AD. Taxila lay at the crossroads of three major trade routes: the royal highway from Paṭaliputra; the north-western route through Bactria, Kapisha, and Puskalavatī (Peshawar); and the route from Kashmir and Central Asia, via Srinigar, Mansehra, and the Haripur valley across the Khunjerab pass to the Silk Road.
In 326 BC Alexander the Great received the submission of Ambhi, king of Taxila.
During the reign of Asoka (3nd cent AD), Taxila became an influential centre of Buddhist learning.
Assorted Greek satraps held sway in Taxila until in 460–470 AD the Ephthalites sweep over Gandhara and the Punjab. - Wholesale destruction of Buddhist monasteries and stupas at Taxila, which never again recovers
For an excellent, detailed article on the art and history of Taxila see Jona Lendering, Livius.com

Begram 2nd cent AD
Begram, Alexandria Caucasia, later the summer rresidence of the Kushan kings 2nd cent AD
Within walking distance of the US military airfield at the site of the the ancient Alexandria Caucasia a treasure of some 200 sophisticated Greco-Gandharan (2nd cent AD) ivory objects was found. Most likely the contents of a warehouse of an exporter of ivories carved in the area. The panels and sculptures depict scenes of ordinary and royal court life.
Large plaque with engraved decoration, with a girl playing a flute and a woman at the foot of a tree.
River Deity standing on a makara.
A woman and child and a pair of ladies in a doorway.
In the museum's exhibition catalogue the Guimet asks the question:
"Should we view this as a Kushan collection from Augustus’s era (1st century AD) or even of Kaniska's (2nd century.), or should we assign a much earlier date, back to the Indo-Parthian period, when the sovereign Gondopharnes governed Taxila, or indeed the Indo-Greek epoch, the time of the very last Greek king in the south of the Hindukush, Hermaios who reigned over Kabul? Whether this Treasure was hidden through fear of invasions, was a merchant’s stock or was just a simple collection, even today the collection refuses to give up its secrets."
From Dorothy Lobel King's blogpage Photographs © Thierry Ollivier / Musée Guimet, Paris.

Tilia Tepe 100 BC-100 AD
Tilia Tepe Necropolis, Greco-Bactrian -Buddhist gold jewelery find extraordinary (1st cent BC to 1st cent AD)
In 1978 Viktor Sarianidi unearthed a citadel at Tillia Tepe near Shebergan dating back to the 1st cent BC and six tombs displaying unprecedented wealth. The tombs held five women and one man. The bodies were dressed in clothes sewn with gold and encrusted with turquoise, garnet and lapis lazuli.
These treasures were housed at the Kabul Museum. They miraculously survived the Taliban destruction in a bank safe:
This Greco-Baktrian gold pendant with turquoise, garnet, lapis lazuli, carnelian, and pearls depicts a “dragon master.(1st cent AD).
Belt with depictions of Dyonisus riding a lion. (1st cent AD)
Clasp with erotes on dolphins.
From Dorothy Lobel King's blogpage Photographs © Thierry Ollivier / Musée Guimet, Paris.

Takht-i-Bahai 1st - 6th cent AD
Takht-i-Bahai , Greco-Buddhist 1 st - 6th cent AD
Takht-i-Bahai was the center of Greco-Buddhism in Gandhara.
Large ruins of a Buddhist monastery and academy are found in a mountain valley (1st-6th cent AD). Many of the celebrated Greco-Gandharan Buddhist sculptures in Western museums come from here. A few are still in loco. The monastery is relatively well preserved.
Two reliefs from Takht-i-Bahai:
Ghandara Buddha Avalokiteshvara
The miraculous birth of the Buddha
Photos from Le Coq, "Buddhistische Spätantike"

Shaikhan Dheri 2nd cent AD
Shaikhan Dheri, Greco-Buddhist early 2nd cent AD
The Bactrian Greeks built a new city across the river Jinde from Pushkalavati . This city was occupied by Parthian, Sakas and Kushans. In 2nd AD, the river changed its course and the city was relocated to the modern village of Rajar.
The city was partly excavated by Ahmad Hasan Dani in 1960’s. There are still many mounds at Mir Ziarat, at Rajar and Shahr-i-Napursan which are still unexcavated.
Text from Wikipedia
Greco-Buddhist sculpture: Hariti with her children in the "House of Naradakha,"
Photo from Jennifer Gowan, U of Oregon
Hariti with her husband Panchala. A true Hellenistic image. The Greeks identified her with the Greek goddess Tyche for which reason she holds a cornucopia. Photo from Wikipedia

Saidu Sharif 200-300 AD
Saidu-i-Sharif, Swat
Skulptural elements from a Buddhist Stupa 200-300 AD. From archart.it

Bamiyan 4th cent AD
Bamiyan, 4th cent AD
Bamiyan before the destruction of the Buddha. Photo from Wikipedia
The large Buddha of Bamiyan, newly notorious because of its destruction by Talibans in the 1980s, go back to the Sassanian period (4th cent AD). During the following two centuries this Iranian-Gandharan Buddha style was carried through Gansu (Bingling Si, Maiji Shan, Zhangye ) deep into China (Lomgmen, Yungang, Leshan), where such gigantic sculptures were much appreciated at the time.

Shah-i-Dheri (Kanishka's Stupa) 2nd-6th cent AD
The Kanishka stupa was a monumental building erected by the Kushan king Kanishka in 127 AD. Three Chinese travelers, Faxian in 399-412 AD, Sung Yun in 518 AD, and Xuanzang in 630 AD described it as the largest stupa in India
Today there are only the foundations left. A British team excavating at the site in 1908-09 found a reliquary casket ("Kanishka's Casket") with bone splinters supposed to be Buddha Gautama's.

Sahri Bahlol 2nd-5th cent AD
Sahri Bahlol 2nd -5th cent AD
Greco-Buddhist sculpture of a standing, four-armed Hariti with child and trident from Sahri-Bahlol, 2nd - 5th cent AD.
"Yusufzai" Hariti. Yusufzai region (upper Peshawar Valley) - Hariti is portrayed seated in palambapadasana on a backless thronel. She holds a naked, male child across her lap. Other figures (children?) cluster three to a side, one holding a parrot. A larger child sits in royal pose between her feet.
If you have never encountered Hariti before go to Jennifer Gowan, U of Oregon where the text and photos come from.
The complete figure. Photo Wikipedia
Hariti with her husband Panchala. A very Greek image. The Greeks identified her with the Greek goddess Tyche for which reason she holds a cornucopia. Photos from Wikipedia

Gumbat 2nd cent AD
Gumbat, 2nd cent AD. Ancient Budhist stupa and monastery. .
Buddhist sculpture: Ardokhsho-Hariti with donors and attendants from Gumbat, 2nd cent AD. Photo from Jennifer Gowan, U of Oregon

Butkara 2nd cent AD
Butkara Stupa is one of the most important Buddhist shrines of Swat . It was built by the emperor Ashoka in 2nd cen BC. It was enlarged many times. In 1955 it was excavated by Italians. Most of the stone carvings are now displayed in the museum around the world. Stupa was repaired last time in 8th century then it was abandoned and allowed to crumble.
Photo from heritage.gov.pk

Pushkalavati 6th cent BC- 2nd cent AD
Pushkavati, 6th cent BC to 2nd cent AD
Pushkalavati meaning Lotus City was the capital of ancient kingdom Gandhara from the 6th century BC to 2nd century AD. The ruins of Pushkalavati consist of many stupas and sites of two old cities.
The oldest settlement, Bala Hisar, was occupied from 6th century BC. Ashoka built a stupa there which was described by Xuan Zang when he visited in 630AD, which is still not found.

Topdara Buddhist stupa 5th cent AD
The Buddhist stupa at Topdara, 5th cent AD

Nimogram 2nd -6th cent AD
Well preserved Budhist monastery with three stupas in wild and beautiful country. Many Budhist items have been excavated from the site and are displayed in various museums.
Hariti holding child in bracket from Nimogram (Swat), 3rd cent AD?. Photo from Jennifer Gowan, U of Oregon

Fondukistan 7th cent AD
Greco-Buddhist sculptures from Fondukistan 7th cent AD
The Kabul Museum housed a number of unusually beautiful Greco-Buddhist sculptures and Serindia-influenced frescoes from Fondukistan, a few are at the Musee Guimet in Paris.
This fragile, most remarkble Buddha came from this treasure (painted clay, early 7th century). It was in the Kabul Museum. Has it survived? - Does anyone know its present location? -
Photo from : Madelleine Hallade, "Indien, Gandhara, Begegnung zwischen Orient and Okzident", Pawlak Verlag, Herrsching, 1975 (in German)

Nepal, Kathmandu Valley

Buddhist-Bahals

Chabahil Vihara 3rd cent AD
Chabahil Stupa
The oldest stupa (Charumati Vihar) in Kathmandu Valley is in Chabahil (3.cent AD) at the crossing of the major trade routes.
Photo and text from RWFG's website

Bodnath Stupa
Bodnath the Great Stupa
On the morning after Sivaratri in Pashupatinath in 1996 we took refuge from the Indian Hindu mess under the eyes of the Buddha in clean, white Bodnath
Photos by RWFG

Pharping Vajrayogini Shrine
Pharping, Vajrayogini Shrine
A Tantric Bahal (Buddhist shrine) dedicated to Vajra Yogini, the fierce female goddess of the Hevajra and the Chaksamvara Tantras. She is seen as Avalokishvara's consort, the queen of the dakinis. This powerspot is surely very old, the present structure dates from the late Malla period, but incorporates numerous precious ornaments and sculptures from earlier temples.
Near the shrine is the narrow Yanglesho cave in which Guru Padmasambhava is supposed to have attained his enlightenment (not accessible).

Sankhu Vajra Yogini Bahal
Sankhu, Vajra Yogini Bahal
The Sankhu Vajra Yogini Shrine is ancient, it dates at least from the 7th century AD maybe earlier. Hunbtington (see below) dates it to the 4th-3rd cent. BC(!). The entire site is referred to as Gum Bahal. A dark, mystirious place on a lovely wooded hillside. It has changed back and forth between Buddhists and Hindus several times. Presently the Buddhist Sankhu Newaris claim the free-standing upper pagoda, the Hindus a lower lying structure connected with Bhairava (Siva). Access for and photography by outsiders is limited. The Vajra Yogini pagoda houses some of the best Nepali sculptures anywhere.
The sanctuary. Photo Pikiha, Panoramio
The main shrine. Photo from John C. Huntington, kaladarshan.arts.ohio-state.edu

Kathmandu Swayambunath Stupa
The earliest record of the Swayambunath Stupa's existence dates from a 5th-century stone inscription; however, scholars and archaeologists believe that there was probably a shrine here as far back as 2,000 years ago.
The platform on top of the hill is cowded with temples, two monasteries, votive stupas, and priceless devotional metal sculptures in daily use.
The rarely seen entry door to the sanctuary closed to visitors. Photo from sirensongs.blogspot.com

Patan Kwa Bahal
Patan, Kwa Bahal, The "Golden Temple"
Kwa Bahal, a Buddist shrine, is the most significant monastery in Patan by its contemporary religious vitality, its wealth, and its art. A full description would exceed this post.
The priest of the shrine at the street entrance to the Kwa Bahal
Morning at Kwa Bahal, showing the popularity among the large lay sangha of Patan
An old man persueing his private puja.
Photo and text from RWFG's website

Kathmandu Jamal Bahal
Kathmandu, Jamal Bahal
Jamal Bahal, a Buddhist shrine is the abode of Jamadya or Sveta Matsyendranath, the Valleys principal deity and protector. It is a treasure house of Buddhist metal sculptures, stupas, and images. A busy place frequented by merchants and pilgrims.
An adjuvedic herbalist sorting his wares. Photo from RWFG's website

Chobar Andinath Bahal
Chobar, Adinath Bahal
South of the center of the small village Chobar, its golden spire visible from afar, is the Bahal of the Choba Andinath. Andinath is an androgynous image revered by Buddhists and Hindu alike. It is seen both as Karunamaya-Mahadeva and as Amitabha's bodhisattva Anandadi Lokeshvara. The image is probably from the Licchavi period, was stolen by the Tibetans, and reinstalled in Chobar at the end of the 16th century AD. The surrounding buildings date from 1642, which explains the profusion of erotic Shaivite Tantric figures in their eaves.
The ancient image of Anandadi Lokeshvara at Chobar - dressed up by the faithful in Nepali fashion.
The outside of the temple is "decorated" with hundreds of ordinary pots and pans - supposedly gifts by newlyweds to assure a good marriage.

Vishnu-Narayan

Budhanilkanth Vishnu Sanctuary
Budhanilkanth Vishnu Narayan Sanctuary
One of four Vishnu Narayan sanctuaries around Kathmandu where the god sleeps on the earth-snake in a water basin dreaming up the world. Vishnu Narayan was the protector of the Napalese Royal House.
Photo from Kevin Bubriski and Keith Dowman, "Power Places of Kathmandu", 1995
Photo from anatravels.com

Changu Narayan
The gilded roof of the Vishnu Temple on a slope above the Bhaktapur plain can be seen for miles. If you visit no other sanctuary in the Valley, go here. Especially on a weekend when the locals visit the shrine.
This large temple escaped destruction by all invading armies. Its courtyard is a veritable museum of ancient stone sculpture.
Vishnu measuring the earth in three giant strides:
The Trinity of Brahma and Vishnu dreaming up the earth on the snake. Photos RWFG.

Pharping Sesh Narayan Vishnu
Pharping Sesh Narayan
Near the Vajra Yogini sanctuary is another sacred place under the trees dedicated to Vishnu: Shesh Narayan, the fourth location in the Valley dedicated to Vishnu in its unformed, dormant form, sleeping on the snake Ananta. Its spacial relationship to Vajra Yogini Bahal is interesting, but unclear : Padmasambhava is supposed to have dwelt here in an effort to convert the snakes (nagi) to Buddhism.

Shiva Sanctuaries

Pashupatinath
Pashupatinath, the Shaivite Sanctuary
Pashupatinath is more sacred than Varanasi. It has always been one fo the sacred burial grounds in the Himalayas. Here a pious Hindu from the Valley would like to die and be cremated on one of the many Ghats. The main temple, dedicated to Siva the destroyer is inaccessible to non-Hindus. From a small belvedere across the river one can watch the proceedings without distrurbing anybody....
The sactuary from upriver of the Bagmati
A dying man has been brought by his relatives to a building right above the ghat. His daughter chases the flies away, her husband reads the scriptures.
An old man awaiting his death.
Photos by RWFG

Sankhu Lower Vihara
Sankhu, Lower Vihara,
The lower vihara is now a Hindu shrine closed to outsiders.
See also John C. Huntington, kaladarshan.arts.ohio-state.edu

Bungamati, Bungadaya temple 6th-7th cent
Bungadaya Temple in Bungamati is the most ancient (6th-7th cent AD) and most venerated form of the Bodhisattva Lokeshvara in the Valley and the protector deity of Patan, an emanation of Avalokiteshvara. Half a year he resides in his neglected Shikara temple in the village of Bungamati, the other half in the Ta Bahal in Patan. To the Hindus he is Rato Masyendranath, the guru of Gorakhnath and the siddha patron of Patan.
The South-Indian priest of the Bungadaya Temple in the background, Photo from treckearth.com
Twice every year the image of Rato Masyendranath is carried in procession between its two abodes. The image is from wood in the form of a 5-year old boy, his face painted on the body. For the procession he is dressed in red.
The photo of this curious, ancient figure on his voyage was cropped from a picture by Kevin Bubriski: (Kevin Bubriski and Keith Dowman, "Power Places of Kathmandu", 1995)

Gokarneshvara Shaivite Shrine
The temple lies directly on the banks of the Bagmati River. After Pashupathinat Gokarneshvara is the principal shrine of Shiva in the Valley. Its interior is inaccessible to outsiders. A family of Hindu priests from Southern India cares for it.
It was a great honor when John Sanday was permitted to systematically reconstruct the building. Instead of filling it with cement, Sanday recruited a few old masons and together with their apprentices exchanged beams and brick work, thus saving not only the temple but an old craft.

Kathmandu Teku Pachali Bairava Shrine
Kathmandu, Teku Pachali Bairava Shrine
The ancient residence of the most dreadful Bairava (frightening form of Shiva) in Kathmandu. Its ghats line the bank of the Bagmati river

Kirtipur, Bagh Bairava Shrine
Bagh Bairava (the Tiger. a Newar epithet for Shiva, the Terrible) is Kirtipur's great temple. On its walls faded murals of the Mahabharata can be made out. Remarkable erotica adorn the roof struts. In a small shrine is a much venerated image of the Earth Mother in child birth. Not accessible to out siders.

Bhaktapur Akasha Bairava Shaivite
Bhaktapur Akasha Bairava, "Nyatapola" temple
This is the principle Tantric Shivaite shrine on the subcontinent. Also refered to as Nyatapola this 5-tiered pagoda is dedicated to Akasha Bairava, fierce Siva from the Sky. Here Bairava is represented only by his head - which his wife Mahakali cut off - his body fled to to Benares.
Photo by juliser, Panoramio

Shivaratri 1989
Pashupatinath, Shiva Ratri March 1989
In March 1989, we returned to Pashupatinath before sunrise to watch the pilgrims celebrating Shiva Ratri. For days the pilgrims, mostly Indians, had been migrating to Kathmandu by bus or on foot. A huge crowd clogged the access roads to the sanctuary. The Nepali police tried to keep order. We were not made welcome by the police, and as non-Hindus would not be allowed to enter the sanctuary proper. We tried to cut across the meadows below Pashupatinath where thousands had camped during that night.
Pilgrim campers huddling in the morning cold, a smoking fire, and two stray dogs copulating....
Getting to the left bank was a daunting task — despite of numerous lime-pit-toilets the ground was covered with piles of human excrements a few feet apart.... Finally we crossed the river by way of the bridge to the airport.
and reached the "visitors gallery" across from the sanctuary, where we found ourselves surrounded by young Nepalis as curious about the ritual as we were.
When the sun rose in the hazy muck the great purification began. Everyone tried to secure a spot by the sacred water. The military had dammed the Bagmati and created a lake below the ghats.
We separated and I went down to the encampment of the Indian Saddhus:
On my return to the gallery I found Barbara fearlessly sketching the scene. Behind her back someone was just attempting to rifle her purse.
Photos and text from RWFG's website

Tantric Hindu Sanctuaries

Kathmandu Durbar Square
Kathmandu The temples on Durbar Square
An image of fierce Kali Bhairab, a manifestation of Shiva adorns the outside of a small stupa in Durbar Square. Gaily painted the image must be very old. (9th cent?)
Photos and text from RWFG

Dakshinkali
Sanctuary of Dakshinkali - the Southern Kali (!)
Dakshinkali, one of Nepal's most popular Hindu shrines lies in a lovely valley below Pharping. Kali the giver and taker of life is still celebrated with "red sacrifices" there. The poor bring roosters, the rich rams, both are being dispatched with a single stroke of a priest, who stands to his ankles in blood. The decapitated animals are wahed, skinned, roasted on open fires, and eaten by he pilgrims.
Not for the fainthearted, even Indian Hindus shudder. You will be disappointed, piety kept me from photographing this precedure.
The sacrifical animals are being handled by the men, women and Brahmins are permitted a gentler offering of throwing flowers into a sacred fire:.
The faithful streaming down the stairs to the sanctuary in the valley
Nepali Madonna feeding her baby at Dakhsinkali.
A young girl
Photos from RWFG's website

Bhaktapur Taleju
The goddess Taleju is the Tantric Goddess per excellance and the origin of the Royal Malla lineage. Her temples stand in or near the royal palaces in all three cities. She is not indigenous but was brought into the Valley by the Malla kings. Almost certainly her Bhaktapur temple is the oldest of the three. Since the overthrow of the Mala her importance has declined. Being a secret Tantric Goddess she never was popular among the ordinary people.
Her temple is in the back of the royal compound, inaccessible except to initiates.

Kathmandu Degu Taleju
The Degu Taleju temple (the wooden structure). Since Malla times the tempel houses the private Tantric Goddess of the Royal House. It is inside the Hanuman Doka. In the 1980s John Sanday was authorized to completely restore the structure. Photo from bluedandelion.net

Buddhist Serindia

Dunhuang 4th-13th cent AD
Dunhuang Magao Caves 4th-13th cent AD
Dunhuang flourished 900 years starting around 366 AD. It is an assembly of 900 man-made caves all painted in glorious colors: the largest open-air art gallery in the world.
Besides being magnificent in themselves, the frescoes give a full account of the development of Central Asian Buddhist painting and the changes in Buddhist doctrin.
Buddha Maitreya and Attendants, Cave 248, Western Wei Dynasty, around 450 AD
Buddha's Paranirvana — the historical Buddha's death The faces of his disciples who at later times assume grotesk expressions is accomplished by mininmal, abstract means. Cave 428, Nothern Zou, around 560 AD.
The psychodelic ceiling of Cave 249, Western Wei, 450 AD
Photos from an extensively illustrated description of the Magao Caves at RWFG's website

Sani Cremation Ground 3rd cent AD
Sani Gompa and Cremation Ground, Zanskar, 200-900 AD
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Sani Gompa is one of the oldest in the Ladakh-Zanskar. Its stupa goes back to the 3rd cent, its cremation ground is one of the 8 sacred cremation sites of Buddhism.
Mani wall on the way to Sani. Photo from Wikipedia.

Khotan 3rd-5th cent AD
In the 5th-10th cent AD Khotan had a large thriving community of Buddhist monks, described by several Chinese travelers (e.g., Fa Xien). It was destroyed by the Qarakhanid Qaghans after a long siege at the end of the 10th cent. It never recovered, in part because the southern part of the Taklamakan was drying up.

Kucha 3rd-9th cent AD
In the 5th - 9th cent AD Khucha was a Buddhist kingdom of red-haired, blue-eyed princes. Recovered manuscripts show that they spoke a Western European "centum" language (close to the Germanic languages) - not an Indo-Iranian "hatem" dialect. Their language is called Tokharian, after a mythical tribe Herodot mentions. This seems to indicate that they migrated here in more recent times than the Indo-Iranian-European Migrations. Our understanding is incomplete - but look at their red-blond hair and possibly blue eyes in the frescoes of the caves at Kizil.
Several translators of Buddhist scriptures came from here. The most famous was Kumarajiva (344-413) who was born to Indian parents in Kucha.

Buddhist India

Early Buddhism 2nd cent BC-1200 AD
Early Buddhism 200 BC-1200 AD
Prince Siddharta. Gandhara, 2nd-3rd cent AD, Musée Guimet, Paris.
Early Buddhism, as taught by the historical Buddha Gautama, was a monastic discipline. It's strict discipline was not intended to be imposed on the laymen of the communities. Around the 1st cent AD Mahayana Buddhism split from what was by then referred to as the Theravada. The Mahayana ("Great Vehicle") introduced the concept of Bodisattvas, Saints who remained on earth to teach the lay people unable to follow strict monastic rules. The Mahayana greatly expanded Buddhism from India through central Asia (6th-7th vent AD) into Persia, China, Indonesia, and East Asia.

Lumbini Buddha's Birthplace 563 BC
Offerings at the birth site of Buddha Gautama. Photo from sacred- destinations.com

Bodh Gaya 570 BC - 300 AD
Mahabodhi Temple, Bodh Gaya, after 250 BC. Photo from Wikipedia
Historically, Bodh Gaya was known as Bodhimanda, "round under the Bodhi-tree"where the historical Buddha received his enlightenment. There was a large monastic settlement there. The main monastery of Bodhgaya used to be called the Bodhimanda-vihara (Pali). Now it is called the Mahabodhi Temple.
For Buddhists, Bodh Gaya is the most important of the main four pilgrimage sites related to the life of Gautama Buddha, the other three being Kushinagar, Lumbini, and Sarnath.

Kushinagar 3rd BC-5th cent AD
Ancient excavated Buddha statue in the Parinirvana Temple, Kushinagar
At the time of the Buddha, Kushinagar was the capital of the Mallas. It was here that Gautama Buddha died..Gautama Buddha attained Parinirvana (or 'Final Nirvana') after falling ill from eating a meal of a species of mushroom which translates as "pig's delight". Another version of this jataka story says that he ate spoiled meat from a boar. He knew that he would die and forbade his disciples to touch the food.
Many of the ruined stupas and viharas here date back to 3rd century BC - 5th century AD when it was at its peak. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka contributed significantly to their construction.

Hill of Sanchi , Great Stupa 2nd cent BC
The Hill of Sanchi, Great Stupa 2nd cent BC
Sanchi Stupa, before 70 BC
The 'Great Stupa' at Sanchi is the earliest surviving Buddhist temple. It was originally commissioned by Emperor Ashoka in the 2rd century BC. One of Ashoka's pillars stands close by. The "bumpa" its nucleus was a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of the Buddha. The stupa was vandalized sometimes in the 2nd century BC. It has been suggested that emperor Pushyamitra Sunga may have destroyed the original stupa, and his son Agnimitra rebuilt it. The gateways and the balustrade were added in 70 BC, and appear to have been built by King Satakarni Satavahana. There are two more, smaller stupas, several monasteries, and the foundations of several temples at the site.
Temples 17 and 40 on Sanchi Hill. Photo sunya.net
Temple 17 (5th cent) and 40 (11th cent) on Sanchi Hill. Temple 17 together with the Kankali Devi Temple in Tigawa and the Deoghar Dasvathra Temple are the earliest true structural temples in India (5th cent AD). All three are well preserved.

Vaishali Stupa 2nd cent BC
Vaishali Stupa 2nd cent BC -1st cent AD
The stupa and the Ashoka Pillar (2nd cent BC). Photo by nyano, Panoramio
Vaishali (Veshali) was the capital of the Licchavi Republic and later of the Vajjian Confederacy (600 BC). At the time of the Buddha (525 BC), Vesali had become immensely rich and prosperous. Its greatest fame (from later Pali texts), however, was its royal courtesan, Ambapali.
Here is her story:
Ambapali or Amrapali was an orphan which had been found at the foot of a mango tree in one of the royal gardens. ("amra", = mango, and "pallawa" = young leaves in Sanskrit). Ambapali grew to be a lady of extraordinary beauty, charm, and grace, and many young nobles of the republic desired her company. The fame of her beauty came to the ears of Bimbisara, the king of the neighboring kingdom of Magadha. Infatuated, he invaded Vaishali, and romanced her. She bore him a son named Vimala Kondanna. - All of this including the Licchavi republic sounds like an ancient Greek tale. - But now the legend takes a Buddhist turn:
Relief depicting Ambapali, 2d cent. AD Kushan red sandstone sculpture. Photo from shunya.net
On his wanderings Gautama Buddha also reached Vaishali. Famous Ambapali received the Buddha and her retinue served him and his disciples a sumptuous vegetarian meal. Soon after he had left the city she renounced her position and joined the Buddhist order, to which she gave all her wealth. - Her son Vimala Kondanna, when he grew up, became a Buddhist monk too.
Someone wrote a novel about Ambapali. a reference to it and further elaborations of this charming story you find - where else? - in Wikipedia

Bhaja Buddhist Caves 200 BC
Bhaja Caves, Buddhist
Bhaja Caves are a group of 18 rock-cut caves dating back to 200 BC.
Photo by Kumar Patil, Panoramio
Stupa inside the Chaitya Hall representing the Buddha (200 BC)
Photo by columbia.edu

Amaravati Buddhist 2nd BC - 3rd cent AD
Amaravati, Buddhist stupa, 2nd BC - 3rd cent AD
Amaravati is considered to be one of the three oladest and most important Buddhist sites on the Subcontinent (the others being Gandhara and Mathura). The Amaravati style strongly influenced the Buddhist art of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
The original Amaravati stupa from its recovered frieze (British Museum) (2nd cent BC). .
Mara's assault from the Amaravati stupa (Musee Guimet, Paris). The Buddha is only symbolically shown by the empty throne and the pipa tree (aniconic representation) (200 BC)
Photos from Wikipedia
Buddhist tradition associates Amaravati with Dhanyakataka where the Buddha first revealed the Kalachakra. In January 2006 His Holiness the Dalai Lama celebrated the 30th Kalachakra Empowerment here.
Photot by pratapknaidu, Panoramio

Ajanta Buddhist Caves, 200 BC-500 AD
Ajanta Buddhist Caves 200 BC - 500 AD
Ajanta Cave Complex
The 30 caves at Ajanta are the largest collection of early Buddhist paintings. The caves were dug and painted in two distinct periods: the earliest beween 200 BC and 200 AD (Early Buddhism), the later caves between 462 to 480 AD (Mahayana). During the early period the Buddha is symbolically represented by a stupa (see Sanchi), while he is shown in person in the frescoes of the later caves. The influence of Ajanta on Buddhist painting is immense. Dunhuang, Kizil, and all Central Asian Buddhist art cannot be appreciated without a reference to Ajanta.
Frescoes in Vihara Cave 1, Mahayana 5th cent AD
Frescoes in Vihara Cave 2, Mahayana 5th cent AD
Photos (edited) from Wikipedia

Aurangbad
Buddhist Cave Temples
1st-7th cent AD
Aurangbad, Buddhist Cave Temples, 1st-7th cent AD
Cave 4 - Chaitya shrine
There are two groups of five temples each.. Cave 4 is the chaitya cave (1st century AD). The others are all viharas (5th -7th century AD), belonging to the Vakataka dynasty and the Kalachuri dynasty. Cave 6 and 7 have verandas with a rear courtyard-type hall.
Verandah of Cave 7. Photo and text from indoarch.org

Kaheri Buddhist Caves 1st-9th cent AD
Kaheri Buddhist caves
These caves date from 1st Century B.C. to 9th Century A.D. The earliest are 109 tiny rock-cut cells, carved into the side of a hill. Copmpared to the splendor of the Elephanta Caves these are spartan and unadorned. Each cave has a congregation hall with a huge stone pillar as stupa. Once the caves became permanent monasteries, they began to be carved out of the rock with intricate reliefs of Buddha and the Bodhisattvas carved into the walls. Kanheri had become an important Buddhist settlement on the Konkan coast by the 3rd century A.D. Kanheri was a University center by the time the area was under the rule of the Maurayan and Kushan empires.
Most of the caves are Buddhist viharas, monastic caves meant for living, study, and meditation. (3rd cent AD)
Buddha Gautama (7th cent AD?)
Photos by Himanshu Sarpotdar

Karli Buddhist Caves 1st cent BC-3rd cent AD
Karli or Karla Buddhist Caves 1st cent BC-3rd cent AD
The entry torana and the lion column
This complex of very well-preserved early Buddhist caves, built in the difficult terrain of a rocky hillsides, is one of the finest examples of the ancient rock-cut caves to be found in India. The main cave has a magnificent Chaitya with huge pillars and intricately carved reliefs dating back to the 1st century B.C. The lion column in front is one ofr Ashoka's pillars, with a closed stone facade and a torana.
Photo and text from Wikipedia

Totlakonda Buddhist 1st cent AD
Totlakonda Buddhist Site, 1st cent AD
The Buddhist Complex on the hill-top of Mangamaripeta, locally known as Thotlakonda came to light during an aerial survey undertaken by the Indian Navy.
Photo by Satya Josyula, Panoramio
Text and more information aptourism.com
Excavations between 1988 and 1992 have revealed structural remains of several buildings and stupas.

Sankaram, Buddhist, 1st- 8th cent AD
Sankaram-Bojjannakonda, Buddhist, 1st - 8th cent AD
British archeologist Alexander Rea unearthed Sankaram, a 2000-year-old Buddhist site in 1907. The three phases of Buddhism viz. Hinayana, Mahayana & Vajrayana flourished here. The complex is famous for its numerous Monolithic Votive Stupas, Rock cut caves, and structural brick-edifices. Excavations yielded historic potteries, Satavahana coins dating back to the 1st century A.D., clay tablets bearing figures of Buddha etc.
Bojjannakonda, the Eastern hill of the site bears richer architecture. It presents a picturesque appearance with its Main Stupa on the hilltop and dominating myriads of stupas, mostly rock-cut one above the other. Almost every outcrop and protuberance has been converted into a stupa. A Maha stupa nearby yielded a relic casket, 3 chaitya halls, votive platforms, stupas and vajrayana sculptures. The Vihara on thisd sit was active for almost 900 years, spanning the Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana phases of Buddhism.
Photo and text from AP-Tourism

Mahakali Buddhist Caves 2nd-5th cent AD
Mahakali Buddhist caves in the city of Mumbai (2nd - 5th cent AD)
Unknown to most citizen of Mumbai-Bombay, in a neglected wooded area lie 15 Buddhist caves from the 2nd - 5th cent AD.
Most of the caves are Buddhist viharas, monastic caves meant for living, study, and meditation. (3rd cent AD)
Buddha Maitreya with attendants (9th cent AD?)
Photos by Himanshu Sarpotdar

Nagarjuna Konda Buddhist 2nd-3rd cent AD
Nagarjuna Konda, Buddhist, 2nd cent BC - 3rd cent AD
Nagarjunakonda was one of the largest and most important Buddhist centres in South India from the 2nd cent BC until the 3rd cent AD. It was named after Acharya Nagarjuna (3rd cent AD), a renowed Buddhist scholar and philosopher, who had migrated here from Amarvati to propagate and spread the Buddha's message of universal peace and brotherhood. The founder of Mahayana Buddhism, this revered monk governed the sangha for almost 60 years and the Madhyamika school be established attracted students from far and wide including Sri Lanka and China.
At the site - preserved in a museum on an island in a large man-made lake - excavations have unearthed a university, monastries, aswamedha altar, royal baths, advanced drainage system, viharas, chaityas, mandapams of the the life of the Buddha. Of special significance is the finding of nine stupa-like structures arranged in a wheel shaped formation which includes the Mahachaitya, the most sacred of them all. The Brahmi characters inscribed on it reveal that remains of Lord Buddha are preserved within.
Photo from aptourism.in

Mathura 60-550 AD
Mathura Capital of the Kushan Empire (60-550 AD)
In the 6th cent BC Mathura was the capital of the Shursen republic. It later became part of the Maurya empire (4th to 2nd centuries BC) and the Sunga dynasty (2nd century BC). Between 180 and 100 BC it came under the control of Indo-Greeks. It then briefly reverted to local rule before being conquered by the Indo-Scythians during the 1st cent BC.
Mathuran Art and culture reached its Zenith under the Kushan dynasty (280-550 AD) of which it was as one capital, the other being Purushpur( Peshawar). The Kushan Kings - save one - were Buddhists.
Head of a "red-stone" Kushan Buddha (5th cent), Photo from Wikipedia
Relief depicting the courtesan Ambapali, (see Vaisali for her story). 2d cent. AD Kushan Photo from shunya.net
The Kushans were an Indo-European people (chin. Yuezhi) from the eastern Tarim Basin, China. They had contacts with Rome, Persia and China, and for several centuries were at the center of exchange between East and West. Kushan Art was influenced by the Hellenistic culture of Bactria. They adopted the Greek alphabet. Their coins used Greek combined with Pali legends (in Kharoshthi script) until the reign of Kanishka (127-147 AD)
The Mathura Museum has the largest collection of early Buddhist redstone sculptures in Asia. - In 634 AD the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, in search for Buddhist scriptures, visited and described Mathura.

Sarnath Buddhist Stupa 3rd cent AD
Ruins of the monastery and the stupa at Sarnath. Photo from Russian Website
Around 570 BC, after his enlightenment, the Buddha came here and taught his 5 disciples what he had learned. This is referred to as "the turning of the wheel of the Dharma" and marks the founding of the Sangha, the original Buddhist community of monks. The stupa dates from the 3nd cent AD.

Nalanda 427-1197 AD
Ruins of Nalanda University, 427AD - 1197AD
Nalada was a Buddhist university from 427 AD to 1197 AD partly under the Pala Empire.It was established 450 AD under the patronage of the Gupta emperors, notably Kumaragupta. In 1193. Sacked by Turkic Muslim invaders under Bakhtiyar Khilji;was a milestone in the decline of Buddhism in India.
On December 9, 2006, the New York Times detailed a plan in the works to spend $1 billion to revive Nalanda University near the ancient site. A consortium led by Singapore and including China, India, Japan and other nations will attempt to raise $500 million to build a new university and another $500 million to develop necessary infrastructure.

Sri Lanka, Nalanda Gedige Tantric 8th-11th cent
Nalanda Gedige in Sri Lanka is (apparently) a Tantric sanctuary of the 8th - 10th century in Sri Lanka. It was brought to my attention by Janaka Bandara. New photos by Radek Scibior (private communication 2008) allow a better guess at the date and origin of the structures
Very little is known about this site. An inspection of the GE map shows two structures a rectangular temple and a circular building.
The circular building is an early Buddhist brick stupa, seemingly related to Nalanda (sic!) (India) from before 800.
The rectangular temple is made of local lime stone. It appears to date from the 9th or 10th cent. (Related to Kajuraho's Shaivite temples). It's external sculpture , heavily weathered, is decidely Tantric. It may well be late Mahayana Buddhist but might also be Shaivite Tantric.
The intriguing importance of this site would be that it lies in Shri Lanka which originally (2nd cent BC - 5th cent AD) was Hinyana Buddhist. Sri Lanka then joined the Mahayana and only in the 13th cent AD was reconverted to the Hinyana by missionaries from Southeast Asia. - Whether Buddhist or Hindu this is one of the rare Tantric sanctuaries known on the subcontinent and their most southern site.
My thanks go to Radek Scibior, who contributed the photos. I would appreciate any comments from more knowledgable art historians.

Ellora Caves, Buddhist, Hindu, Jain 5 -11th cent AD
The Caves of Ellora 5th - 11th cent AD
In contradistinction to Ajanta the famous Ellora caves are ornamented with purely sculptural decorations. They comprise vihayas which served Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain monastic congrations. Like in the other early cave sanctuaries, the caves are entirely man-made.
Buddhist Caves (1-12), are the earliest 5th - 7th cent AD
The Buddhist caves were the earliest structures, created between the 5th and 7th cent. These consist mostly of viharas or monasteries
Chaitya Hall, Cave 10.
Hindu Rashtrakuta Caves (13-29), 8th-10th cent AD
The first Hindu caves were constructed in the beginning of the 8th century by the Rashtrakutas. The Shaivite Cave 16, the Kailasa or Kailasanatha, is the unrivaled centerpiece of Ellora. This gargantuan structure – designed to recall Mount Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva – looks like a freestanding, multi-storeyed temple complex, but it was entirely carved out of the standing rock.
Shiva with the bow or The Sun God on his chariot (?)
The Jain Caves (30-34), are the youngest caves in Ellora, 9th - 11 cent AD
They reflect the Jain inclination to asceticism, are not as large as the others, but contain exceptional sculptural images.
A typical early Jain image surrounded by flowers.
Photos from a phenomenal Russian Website
Wedding of Shiva and Parvati.
Photo Wikipedia

Ratnagiri Vajrayana, 7th -11th cent A
Ratnagiri Vajrayana(!) Buddhist Complex, 7th -11th cent AD
Ratnagiri, the centre of Buddhism during the Middle Ages was also a Buddhist university. On the peak of the hill, is the foundation of a stupa and around it are a number of small stupas. There is no temple but there is large monastery and a small one. The large monastery, built with bricks has Gupta dynasty style statues of Buddha carved around the entrance and on the doorway of the shrine.
Ratnagiri belonged to the Vajrayana (esoteric) school of Buddhism. Its art is also connected to Java, due to marriage ties between their rulers.
Photo and Text from indoarch.org

Lalitagiri Vajrayana 9th cent AD
Lalitagiri, Vajrayana Sanctuary 9th cent AD

Udayagiri, Orissa Vajrayana 9-10th cent
Udayagiri (Orissa) Buddhist Monastery 9th-10th century AD
Larger than life-sized, seated Buddha in the yard of the monastery. - Like Ratnagiri this site was a late Vajrayana(!) monastery. There are wonderful sculptures on the pillars at the shrine’s entrance. At the foot of the hill is a 10th century stepwell, rare in east India. Photos from indoarch.org

Mahoba Vajrayana Buddhist temple 9-10 cent
Mahoba was the capital of the Chandela Rajputs, who ruled Bundelkhand from the 10th to the 16th centuries.

Pagan 3rd cent BC
Pagan. Photo from Wikipedia
According to the Theravada tradition Ashoka (3rd cent BC) sent Sona Thera and Uttara Thera to Suvannabhumi (Pagan) to bring Buddhism to the Mon Kingdom.
See: Wikipedia
The Mon dominated kingdom ( 874-1369) of Pagan had a mixed Mahayana-Tantrayana (in the northern parts) and Hindu population. A situation not unlike that in Nepal today. The kings, however, adhered to and supported the Theravada at least from the 1st cent AD. Due to the widespread distribution of ethnic Mon people over the entire area and their old Theravada-Buddhist tradition, Pagan became the bridge for the spread of the Theravada to Southeast Asia in the 12th cent.

Pegu
King Naresuan, poster from a historical movie about Bago-Pego.
For an extensive discussion of this excellent Thai film click Naresuan

Buddhist Presence in Ptolemaic Alexandria 2nd cent BC?
Was there a Buddhist influence on Ptolemaic Alexandria in the 2nd cent BC?
It is not extacly clear how strong the fluence of Buddhism was on Egypt and Greece during the post-Alexandrian period. Some authors have pointed to the presence of Buddhist communities in Alexandria (see below), and to the pre-Christian monastic order of the Therapeutae (possibly a corrupttion of the Pali word "Theravada"), who may have "almost entirely drawn (their) inspiration from the teaching and practices of Buddhist (or Jain) asceticism" (Robert Linssen).
Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have been found in Alexandria, decorated with the wheel of the Dharma (Tarn: "The Greeks in Bactria and India").
In the 2nd century AD, the Christian theologian Clement of Alexandria recognized Bactrian Buddhists (Sarmanas) and Indian Gymnosophists for their influence on Greek thought:
Quote
"Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to Greece. First in its ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; and the Chaldeans among the Assyrians; and the Druids among the Gauls; and the Sarmanas among the Bactrians ("Σαρμαναίοι Βάκτρων"); and the philosophers of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians, who foretold the Saviour's birth, and came into the land of Judaea guided by a star. The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them called Sarmanas ("Σαρμάναι"), and others Brahmins ("Βραφμαναι")." Clement of Alexandria "The Stromata, or Miscellanies" Book I, Chapter XV. 1.
For reference see Wikipedia

Hindu India

Tigawa Kankali Devi Temple 5th cent
Tigawa, Kankali Devi Temple, Hindu, 5th cent
This square temple was the forerunner of the structural stone temples (not caves!) of the Gupta dynasty. It is very well preserved and is similar to Buddhist Temple 17 of Sanchi. It does not have a circumbulatory, but it does have an ardhamandapa, which was originally just a pathway. The walls on both sides of the ardhamandapa were attached later. The roof is flat and there is no shikhara. As in Sanchi, lions are sculpted on top of the pillars.
Getting to Sanchi from Khajuraho (200 km south) or from Tigawa (200 km west) is difficult, it is worth a visit. Photo indoarch.org

Deogarh Dasavatara Temple
5th cent
Deogarh, Dasavatara Temple 5th cent AD
The ancient temple at the foot of the mountain, like the temple in Nachna, has a circumbulatory around the shrine but the roof is broken. Murals and sculptures on the doorway belong to the Gupta dynasty.
Floor plan of the temple.
Vishnu reclining (south wall), Photos from indoarch.or.

Varanasi Hindu 550 BC-present
This marker is part of a "History of Indian Art and Architecture." It includes a Historical Atlas of India and Pakistan. To see the photos and maps and read the descriptions you need to download the entire post. Varanasi
Early morning cremations at the Gats. Photo from a phenomenal Russian Website
Varanasi is a city situated on the banks of the river Ganga (Ganges). It is sacred to Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, and is one of the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world. People are coming here to bathe in the Ganges or to die. Cremations take place on certain ghats lining the crowded rive bank. Buddha Gautama taught his Sermon in the Deer Park across the river from the city in 550 BC.
Varanasi, Laundry wallahs by the Ganges
Women after their bath. Photos RWFG

Badami Caves,Shaivite, Jain, 6th cent
Badami Caves, Brahmanic, Chalukya, Shaivite, Jain, 6th cent AD
Badami was the capital of the Early Chalukyas, who ruled much of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh between the 6th and 8th centuries. It was founded in 540 A.D. by Pulakesi I(535-566 AD), an early ruler of the Chalukyas. His sons Kirthivarman (567-598 AD) and his brother Mangalesha I (598-610 AD) constructed the cave temples.
Photo by bergerfoundation.ch
The rock-cut Badami Cave Temples were sculpted mostly between the 6th and 8th centuries. The four cave temples represent the secular nature of the rulers of the time, with tolerance and a religious following that included Brahmans, Shaivites and Jains. Cave 1 is devoted to Shiva, Caves 2 and 3 are dedicated to Vishnu, and Ccave 4 displays reliefs of Jain Tirthankaras.
Dancing Shiva, Cave 1 Shivaite, 575 - 585 A.D.
Vishnu Varaha, boar-faced, 6th cent AD.
Bahubali (Gommateshvara), Jain Cave 4, 6th cent AD. Photo by archivenews.blogspot.com

Aihole Buddhist, Shivaite, Jain 6th-9th cent AD
Aihole Temples, Chalukya, Shivaite (6th cent), Jain (7th cent) to 12th cent AD
The village of Aihole contains 7 temples from the Early Western Chalukya and later periods (7th - 9th century) and one Buddhist and one Jain cave temple of the 7th cent.
The largest temple is dedicated to Durga and Shiva .
The temple's unusual apsidal form is thought to imitate the earlier Buddhist chaitya halls Photo travel.paintedstock.com
The interior circumambulatory. Photo from indoarch.com
Huchhimalli Temple 700 AD. Photo travel.paintedstock.com
Meguti Temple, Jain, 634 AD, Photo from indoarch.com
This is a very old Jain temple built by Pulakesin II of the Chalukya dynasty on a lonely hill overlooking the town. It has a square plan with a pradakshina path around the shrine. The pillars on the outer walls, the base foundation and the parapet in this temple, are all hallmarks of the southern style of the Later Ages. The first floor was added on later.
Ravanapadi Cave Temple, Shiva Dancing. Photo travel.paintedstock.com

Pattadakal, Shaivite, 7th-9th cent
Pattadakal Chalukyan Temples Shaivite, 7th-9th cent AD
Pattadakal, a ceremonial site where the coronations of the Early Western Chalukyan kings took place. The six temples all date from the first half of the 8th century. However, the Kashivishvanatha temple seen in the photo is Rashtrakutan, from the second half of the 8th century, and there is also a Rashtrakutan (9th century) Jain temple nearby. Photo bergerfoundation.ch
Mallikarjuna (l.) and Kashivishvanatha (r.) Temples.
Photo from indoarch.org
The Pattadakal temples display a mixture of styles, like the much more numerous group at Aihole. In the photo, for example, northern (r.) and Deccan (l.) towers are displayed side-by-side. All the temples face east.
Examples of the often unorthodox sculptures in the largest Viruksha Tempel. Virupaksha and its "sister" temple, Mallikarjuna, were built 745 by two sisters, queens of Vikramaditya II (733-746).
Viruksha Temple. Photo Archeological Service of India
Shiva subduing Ravana who shakes Mount Kailas. Although the temple is dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu is also present:
Harihara - Vishnu ("hari") and Shiva ("hara") combined half-and-half into one deity: A trident-bearing gana on his right and Lakshmi on his left. His left upper hand holds a conch. His right upper hand holds a attribute which looks like a chakra, although this would not be correct for the "Shiva half" of Harihara. Note the solar disk engraved in low relief by his face, on the Vishnu side. Photo clas.ufl.edu
Another unusual Chalukya sculpture from the Virupaksha temple (745). Photo bergerfoundation.ch

Mahabalipuram 6th-9th cent
Mahabalipuram, Pallava, 6th-9th cent
The Pallava dynasty ruled this region from 6th to 9th centuries. Their capital was Kanchipuram. They were constantly at war with the Chalukyas and Pandyas until the Cholas overpowered them.
Since the Pallavas had trade relations with many countries and invaded Sri Lanka, it is understandable that the port city of Mahabalipuram was very prominent. It was built by Mamalla or Narasimhavarman I Pallavamalla (630-668)
Since the Tamil traders travelled as far as South East Asia, the Pallava architecture was influenced by Shri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
Mahabalipuram was developed atthe same time as Chalukya Badami and Aihole. The evolution of stone architecture right from cave temples, rock cut temples and the early stone temples can be seen here in sequence.
At Kalpakkam, 7 km south of this ancient town, the Indian Atomic Energy Commission reprocesses its reactor wastes for plutonium bomb production.....

Mahabalipuram Pallava, Shore Temple 700 - 728 AD
The famous Shore Temple - built during the reign of the Pallava King Rajasimha - is the earliest important structural temple in Southern India. Its three sanctuaries are dedicated to Vishnu and Shiva
The temple was rescued from the sea and reconstructed stone by stone after being washed away in a cyclone. Recent excavations have revealed new structures. Photo Russian Website

Mahabalipuram Pallava Rock Relief 7th cent
Mahabalipuram Pallava Rock Relief "Descent of the Ganges" or "Arjuna's Penance" early 7th cent AD
Descent of the Ganges Early 7th cent. - This magnificent relief, carved in the mid-7th cent, measures approximately 30m (100ft) long by 15m (45ft) high. The subject is either Arjuna's Penance or the Descent of the Ganges, or possibly both. Arjuna's Penance is a story from the Mahabharata. The Ganges story is similar: The sage Bhagiratha performs austerities in order to bring the Ganges down to earth. Shiva had to consent to break her fall in his hair, because otherwise Bhagiratha power would have destroyed the earth.
Too large to photograph : The upper left of the relief depicts a mountain setting with grazing animals, lions, humans, and celestials, Mt. Kailas,Shiva's abode in the Himalayas where the worlds of gods, humans, and animals intermingle. Photo shunya.net

Mahabalipuram Varaha Mandapa late 7th cent AD
Mahabalipuram Pallava Varaha Mandapa Cave Temple late 7th cent AD
The entrence hall
Varaha (Boar) Mandapa shows Krishna Govardhana, who lifts up the mountain to shelter his followers from a storm. Photos shunya.net

Mahabalipuram Mahishasuramardini Mandapa
7th cent
Mahabalipuram, Pallava, Mahishasuramardini Mandapa cave temple 7th cent
This cave temple has a garbhagriha in the centre with a porch and the walls of both sides are sculpted. Photo from indoarch.org

Mahabalipuram, Pancha Rathas, Pallava, 7th cent.
These five stone temples are erroniously called Pancha (five) Rathas (chariots). Carved out of the standing rock, one behind the other, they are properly named after the five Pandava brothers in the Mahabharata and their wife Draupadi. The style of each temple is different and together they constiute a veritable catalogue of the temple styles of the time.
From the left - Draupadi,Arjuna,Bhima, Dharmaraja and Nakula Sahadeva Ratha. Draupadi Ratha is a small square with the sloping roof found in houses. Arjuna Ratha is a southern style vimana with a stepped pyramidal roof.
Nakula Sahadeva Ratha has the straight front, curved rear chaitya style.
The Bhima Ratha is rectangular with a suspended roof and has a farmhouse look. The lower portion of the Bhima Ratha is incomplete.
At the far end is the Dharmaraja Ratha. It is one tier higher, is unfinished and does not have a shrine.
Photos from indoarch.org

Kanchipuram Kailasanathar Temple Shaivite early 8th cent AD
Kanchipuram Kailasanathar Pallava Temple, Shaivite, early 8th cent AD
The Kailasanath temple was built by the Pallava King Narasimhavarman II in the early 8th century CE. It is famous for its splendid vimana. It is the oldest of the four great temples of Kanchipuram and contains numerous panels showing lord Siva as Nataraja in various postures.
Detail of the vimana
Shiva Nataranya. Photos Russian Website

Nagda Shaivite, Jain Temples 7th-10th cent
Nagda, Jain Adbudji and Sas-Bahu Shaivite Temples 7th-8th cent
Nagda was the 7th - 8th century capital of the Mewar kingdom. Its main shrine is the Sas-Bahu temple dedicated to Vishnu and dating from the late 10th century and .
Photo from monnee-kashyap.in

Bubaneshwar Shaivite 7th-15th cent AD
Bhubaneshwar, Shaivite, 7th-15th cent AD
Bhubaneshwar began as the Shailodbhava capital in the 7th century; major temple-building activity continued under the Bhauma Kara (8th century) and Somavamshi (9th-11th century) dynasties. There are also some later temples, from the Eastern Ganga (12th -14th century) and Gajapati (14th-15th century) periods.
The large number of well-preserved temples, many with outstanding sculptural decoration, allow to study the of Hindu temple architecture from the 7th to the 15th century.
One of Orissa's most famous temples, Lingaraja Temple, draws both pilgrims and tourists to Bhubaneshwar. The Shiva shrine was built around 1000 A.D.
Photo by James P. Blair, Nat. Geographic
Mukteshvara Temple, Shaivite, 950-975 AD
Photo indoarch.org
Mukteshvara Temple is the dividing line between the earlier and the later styles of Orissa architecture. This jewel of a temple, which is built on a small scale, has an excellent finish. There are a number of small shrines inside the precincts. A low wall surrounds the base, which is densely sculpted. The pillars of the arch-like torana in front of the temple are moderately sculpted, but the actual arch has dense carvings that make the torana quite spectacular. At the back is a rectangular tank for ablution.
Ramesvasra Temple, Hindu, 13th cent.
Photo from indoarch.org
The Ramesvara Temple belongs to a later age. Its jagamohan is separated from the deul and the roof is not a pidha deul but the earlier style of three-tiered hipped roof. The walls have almost no sculptures and reflect the end of artistic excellence in Orissa.

Elephanta Shaivite Caves, 810-1260 AD
Elephanta- Gharapuri, Shivaite Cave complex on an island in Mumbai-Bombai harbor (810–1260)
Shiva as Nataraja, the "Dancer"
Shiva as androgynous Ardhanarishvara: the sculpture's left is female and the right is male, representing symbolocally the conjunction of Shiva and Shakti (Parvati). Ardhanarishvara is one of the most prevalent forms of the Divine in Indian art since around the beginning of the Christian era or a little before.
The most famous image at Elephanta is Shiva Mahesamurti (in his three aspects), to our left is the face of Bhairava - god of destruction, and to the right is the female incarnation of Siva as Vamadeva. Photos Wikipedia .

Khajuraho,Shaivite Jain, 950-1050 AD
Khajuraho, 11 Shaivite (950 - 1050 AD) and 5 Jain temples and one Chaunsath Yogini Tantric temple.
Once the original capital of the Chandela Rajputs, a Hindu dynasty that ruled this part of India from the 10th to the 12th centuries. The Khajuraho temples were built over a span of a hundred years, from 950 to 1050. The Chandela capital was moved to Mahoba after this time, but Khajuraho continued to flourish for some time.
Unlike other cultural centers of North India, the temples remained undiscovered by the Islamic Mughals and the British until a Victorian colonel happened upon them. He nearly fainted, but his boy-servant photographed the "sinful" sculptures, and that is how their fame spread, as Victorian pornography...
Khajuraho has become synonymous with erotic sculpture, and it is known to many as just a place of erotic display in stone. However, to the Shaivite they were Tantric images which celebrate the unity of the conjunction and the senses to gain esoteric insights in return. The Tibetan Vajrayana uses similar meditation images for the same purpose.
Archeologically this interpretation is supported by the fact that the earliest temple in Khajuraho is a rare Chaunsat Yogini (Shakti) sanctuary of 900 AD located apart from the western group a short distance to the southwest. Rarely visited it is an open-air temple, partly in ruins with only 35 of the 64 Yogini images still in place.
The temples of Khajuraho are some of best preserved architecture in India, and their sculptures reflect the dynamic power and the exuberance of Indian culture, lost through 800 years of Moslem and British domination.
The large Kandariya Mahadeva Hindu Temple (1050 AD) devoted to Shiva. Interestingly, despite their often erotic postures the sculptures do not display significant musculature or tensions, which distances them from Greek sculpture.
The lower bands depict worldly life, a caravan of elephants, an army of warriors....
Not all maidens are active, these two are half asleep.
The sculptures of the Jain temples are less exalted. Numerous Sardulas, symbols of desire, hide in the shadows between gods and men. This one has its teeth cleaned by a miniature earthling.
These and more photos can be found at RWFG, Khajuraho, March1989
A website with hundreds of black and white photos of the sculptures: vishwakala.org

Kajuraho Chaunsath Yogini Temple 900 AD
Khajuraho, Chaunsath (64-)Yogini Tantric Shaivite temple, 900 AD cent.
Dated to 900 AD Chausath Yogini is the oldest temple of Khajuraho, and the earliest of four rare Tantric Shakti sanctuaries in India. Dedicated to the goddess Kali (Shakti) and the sixty-four Yoginis, which represented her aspects
Different from the other sandstone temples at Khajuraho it is built in granite. - The location of my placemark is not certain. The structure I placed it in is rectangular and not circular as in other, later Chaunsat-Yogini sanctuaries. - Please send me any photographs you might have!
The name "Chausath" (sixty-four) derives from the number of sculptures of the 64 manifestations (Yoginis) which surround the Goddess Kali (Shakti).
Built on a low rocky ridge, the temple is a rarely visited open-air sanctuary a few hundred meters south of the western group. It has a unique quadrangular plan and is partially ruined . Only 35 of the original 65 images have survived.
Unfortunately I have not found any photographs of this sanctuary. But see my marker for "Hirapur 64-Yogini Temple Tantric Shaivite 10th-11th cent" for a slightly later example.

Bheraghat Chaunsath Yogini Temple Shaivite Tantric 10th cent
Bheraghat 64 (Chaunsath) Yogini Temple Shaivite Tantric 10th cent
Durga, Bheraghat, 10th cent. From Britannica.com
Situated atop a hill rock and approached by a long flight of steps,the Chausat Yogini Temple commands a singularly beautiful view of the Narmada flowing through the jagged Marble Rocks. Dedicated to Goddess Durga, this 10th century temple has exquisitely carved stone figures of deities belonging to the Kalchuri period. According to a local legend,this ancient temple is connected to the Gond Queen Durgavati's palace through an undergroung passage. - Notice that the GE map shows 2 circular structures next to each other!

Hirapur 64-Yogini Temple Tantric Shaivite 8th-11th cent
Hirapur 64-Yogini Temple,Tantric 8th - 11th cent AD
(The exact location is somewhere within 5 km from this marker)
This temple is dedicated to the sixty-four ("chaunsath") yoginis (Tantric goddesses), whose exquisite sculptures are set into exterior and interior niches. The temple faces east; its circular form is typical of goddess temples in India. Only four such sites have survived: Bheragaht (10th cent) and an early one in Khajuraho (900 AD).
This is the only "yogini" temple that has female figures on its outer walls, and their distinctive qualities lead one to conclude that this was, at least at one time, a Buddhist shrine: There are nine exterior niches, each home to a dakini sculpted in sandstone poised above large severed human heads. Each holds either her characteristic curved knife or spear in one hand, and her skull cup in the other.
It is generally accepted that the Hirapur temple was constructed during the reigns of Bhauma and Somavamsi (mid-8th to mid-10th century,) since the figures resemble the style of those in the Mukteshwar temple in Bhubaneswar dating to the 9th century. That period is known as Orissa's Golden Age as a consequence of the dynasty's patronage and eclecticism in the arts, and tolerance in religious matters. However, it might be located at the site of a far older sanctuary.
The chaunsat yogini temple of Hirapur is roofless. 64 dakinis circle its sacred enclosure in the center of which once stood Bhairava on a platform, who is now missing.
Photos from indiatemple.blogspot.com
Hirapur, he inside of the sanctuary with the 64 soapstone yoginii sclptures
Une autre yogini présente une version féminine et terrible du Dieu Ganesh.
Photos from © Frédéric Hemmer
For an exhaustive article on the 64-Dakini Cult in Orissa see: orissagov.nic.in

Kamakhya Temple Tantric 12 cent
Kamakhya Tantric Shakti Temple 12th cent
Tantric shakti Temple 12th cent From Kavitha Kalyan, Picasa-Web

Lakkundi 9th-11th cent
Lakkundi Chalukya, 9th-11th cent
The Chalukyas who wrested power from the Rashtrakutas (9th-10th centuries), made Kalyani their capital. Nothing remains of this city now. Most of the later-Chalukya temples are preserved in Lakkundi. There are more than 15 Hindu and Jain temples in this town which was a prominent city a thousand years back. All the temples are made of green schist and the outer walls and entrances are very richly decorated. The shikhara is an in-between-style type and the parapet and the artistic division of the wall with pilasters is typical of the south-Indian style.
Naneshvara temple
BRAHMA-JINALAYA BASTI, Jain, 11th Century
This Jain temple is the largest and oldest temple in Lakkundi. That there are three other Jain temples here, shows that the later-Chalukyas were religiously tolerant. This temple has a garbhagriha shrine and mandapa style with deep beams on the mandapa from where the eaves are cantilevered. It resembles the Muda Bidri Jain temple.
Photos and text from indoarch.org

Kalyani capital the Western Chalukya dynasty from 1050 to 1195. No architectural remains.

Kanchipuram Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Vishnu, 1053 AD
Kanchipuram Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Vishnavid, 1053 AD
Varadharaja Perumal Temple is dedicated to Vishnu. It is an ancient temple built by the Cholas in 1053. It was greatly expanded by the following Chola kings. A very large complex.
Its "baroque" internal sculptures are its most significant aspect. Photo Russian Website
Detail of the only partially visible culumn at left in the above photo. Photo Wikipedia

Kanchipuram Ekambareswarar Temple Shaivite 11th cent AD
Kanchipuram Ekambareswarar Temple Shaivite, no date, 11th cent AD
The Ekambareswarar Temple is dedicated to Shiva. It is one of the five major Shiva temples representing the element Earth. Reaching a height of 57 meters, the temple's gopuram is one of the tallest in South India.
One notable feature of the temple is the Aayiram Kaal Mandapam, or the "hallway with a thousand pillars".
Thunderclouds on a hot afternoon. Photos from Russian Website

Belur Chennakesava Temple Vishnu 1117 AD
Belur, Chennakesava Temple, Vishnu, 1117 AD
The temple was commissioned by Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana in 1117 CE. It It is dedicated to Chena Kesvara (Beautiful Vishnu) and has a star (cross)-shaped centralized floor plan.
Its elaborate sculptures are made from soapstone (chloritic shist)
Photos from Wikipedia

Thanjavur-Tanjore, Shaivite, 12th cent
Thanjavur-Tanjore, Brihadishwara Temple, Chola, Shaivite 12th cent
Thanjavur-Tanjore was the favored capital of the Cholas (10th - 12th century), Nayakas (16th century), and Marathas (17th - 18th century). The town harbors many temples, however, the most exciting are the Chola bronzes in the Rajaraja Museum. The Cholas were ardent followers of Shiva
Tanjore's important temple is the Brihadeshvara Temple, Chola, 1003-1010 AD
Brihadeshvara, also called Rajarajeshvara after its founder (Rajaraja I, 985 - 1012), was built from 1003 to 1010. Its thirteen-storied tower (all temple towers in India have an odd number of storeys) is about 66m high. The temple is dedicated to Shiva.
A great number of exquisite Chola sculpture survived mostly from Thanjavur. They are in the Yanjore Museum
Shiva Bhikshatana, Chola, 1040 AD.
Shiva wanders the earth as a beggar, accompanied by a dog who jumps up for scraps. The god is naked except for a snake around his hips, sturdy sandals on his feet, and various ornaments. His left lower hand holds Brahma's skullcap; his right upper hand holds a drum, on which he taps out the rhythm of the universe. The drum, dog, and skullcap secondarily associate this form of Shiva with the cremation-ground.
Marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Chola, 11th cent.
Shiva and Parvati join hands, accompanied by Vishnu (right) and Lakshmi (left). Although Vishnu is not on the same platform as the other figures, the group belongs together.
A most graceful Parvati, Chola 11th cent, Thanjavur-Tanjore.
Text and photos from shunya.net

Halebidu Shaivite 1220 AD
Halebidu, Hoysala, 1220 AD
Halebidu (former Dwarasamudra) was the capital of Hoysala after Belur.Construction of the Hoysaleswara twin Shiva Temples were begun around 1121 AD. Despite more than 80 years of labor, it was never completed The have a common platform and two garbhagrihas, one beside the other have a common broad navaranga.
The sculptures of the temples are getting more and elaborate, their forms rounder and more south-Indian compared, e.eg., Kajuraho. they begin to overgrow the twmple's outside.
Photos from shunya.net

Konarak Surya temple 1258 AD
Konarak, Surya temple 1258 AD
Photo by Galen-Frysinger
The astonishing Surya temple at Konarak was built by King Narasimha I (1238-1264) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty as an offering, it is said, to commemorate the king's military victories, greatness, and piety. Konarak had long been a center of sun worship, which is rare in India. Even in its present badly eroded state the temple exudes grandeur in its size, its design concept, and in the detail and excellence of its carvings. Its enormous sanctuary tower collapsed in the 19th century; its large pyramidal roof covers only the temple's jagamohan, or entrance hall. The sanctuary tower was about twice as tall.
The temple faces east It was conceived as the chariot of the sun god, Surya, carried upon twelve pairs of wheels representing the months, and drawn by seven horses representing the days of the week The idea of a temple as the chariot of its god is not unique to Konarak, although this is certainly the most splendid example
One of the better preserved wheels on the west side.
Surya riding on a horse (replica?)
Mithuna couples in the niches of the chariot. on the right a naga snake.
A Sardula, the beast of lust and sensuality (see Khajuraho)
Photos from the Russian Gallery

Somnathpur Hoysala
1268
Somnathpur Keshara Temple, Hoysala, 1268
A good example of Hoysala architecture is in Somnathpur. Here you can see the entire range of the Hoysala style.The 50 m x 65 m precincthas a row of small shrines in the west, in its enclosed corridor, as in Jain temples. The entrance is in the east. There are three vimanas with a common mandapa, and all three vimanas with their towers are very well preserved. They each have the star plan, which is also repeated in the plinth. The "in-between style"' of the gopuras reflect the southern style in its horizontal layer and the northern style in its pile-up of miniature shikharas on the surface. There are various gods and goddesses lining the walls. .
Circumambulatory of the temple.
Photos and text from indoarch.org

Warangal Svayambhu Temple Shaivite 12th-14th century
The Kakatiya capital shifted from Hanamkonda to nearby Warangal during the reign of Ganapatideva (1199-1262). Laid out in three concentric rings, the fortified capital was occupied by the Tughluqs in 1323, following the death of the last Kakatiya king. Captured by Vijayanagara in 1510, and by Quli Qutb al-Malik of Golconda in 1532, Warangal eventually passed into the domain of the Nizams of Hyderabad.
A ruined temple of Shiva occupies the geometric center of the Warangal "Fort".
Photo by chotu, Flickr
This extensive and picturesque temple site was originally enclosed by a rectangular wall, pierced by four gates at the cardinal directions (north, east, south, and west). The visitor today will see at least one of the original gates, a confusing jumble of partially-reconstructed edifices, and an extended display of pediments, carvings, etc. that were discovered on-site.
A lintel from the temple showing the Hindu Trinity, Kakatiya 12th cent. A bearded Shaiva guardian of the shrine (previous page) carries attributes of trident, drum, and rosary (his fourth hand is missing). The stylized, slender figure is typical of sculptures of this period.
Mahisasuramardini, Kakatiya, 13th cent.
Photos from shunya.net

Keelaiyur Temple Shaivite14th cent
Keelaiyur Shiva Temple 14th cent
Parvati, 12th century, Chola Bronze from Keelaiyur now in the Rajaraja Museum in Tanjore. Photo tamilnation.org
A tale from the Keelaiyur webpage:
Quote:
"The Nayanmars, saints of Shaiva cult, had sung in praise of a Shiva temple at a place near Thirukovalur, namely Keelaiyur. So, Sri Jeer Swamy handed over all the icons of Lord Shiva, idols and sculptures of other demi-gods and relevant relics to the adored Shiva Temple of Keelaiyur. However, it was difficult to shift the Nandhi (Bull) to its relevant shrine; but Sri Jeer Swamy, with his magnetic personality and mystical powers, enticed the Bull with a bunch of sacred grass in his hands, and successfully repatriated it to the original Shiva temple. This superhuman adventure earned him the name "The Evictor of Nandi"."

Тiruchchirappalli (Trichy) Srirangam RanganathaTemple
The Sri Ranganthaswamy temple is a quintessential, colorful Southindian complex dedicated to Ranganatha, a manifestation of Vishnu.
Photos from the Russian Website

Tiruvannamalaiyar Shaivite Temple Cholar 9th cent.
Tiruvannamalaiyar, Shaivite Temple, Cholar, 9th cent.
The great temple seen from Mt. Arunchala east of town on a smoggy day. Photo from the Russian website
Annamalaiyar Temple is a noted Hindu temple dedicated to Parvati and Shiva Arunachaleswarar (as a Lingam). It is one of the largest temples in India. The present structure and towers date from the reign of the Chola kings in the 9th century A.D
The great Lingam at the center of the temple. Photo from the temple's official website

Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple
Madurai
Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple - A most amazing, 2000 year-old piece of Dravidian Architecture. The massive structure measures 254 by 237 meters. The temple precinct is surrounded by nine gopurams (gateways).
Eastern Gopuram of the Meenakshi Temple complex.
Approching thunderstorm over inner courtyard of the Temple.
A couple in the sanctum
Meanwhile the sun has gone down behind the threatening clouds. Photos oochappan © pbase.com

Thirupparankunram Murugan Temple, Shaivite 16th cent
Thirupparankunram Murugan Temple, Shaivite
One of the six main abodes of Lord Muruga, (sanscrit Subrahmanya). Lord Murugan is next to Lord Ganesha a son of Shiva and Shakti. After a contest with Ganesha over a mango Murugan fled his parents house and settled in Soputh India. It was here that he married Deivanai, the divine daughter of the king of heaven, Indra.
One of the curious things about this temple is that, Shiva and Vishnu face each other in the main shrine, which is rare in Hindu temples.
Tiruparankunram offers a South-Indian experience otherwise only obtainable in the -- Kathmandu Valley: a garish entry porch to a huge, dark cave, age-old, nearly unrecognizable images rubbed with thick layers of tikka powder by the faithful, and crowds of pilgrims. I will reproduce these photographs from an excellent Russian(!) website without comment. They have no captions and speak for themselves.
More photos of this kind can be found at the Russian Website

Palani Murugan Temple Shaivite 16th cent
Palani, Murugan Temple Hill
Palani Murugan Temple is one of major Arupadaiveedu of Lord Muruga temples in India. Murugan, Lord Subrahmanya, is next to Lord Ganesha a son of Shiva and Shakti. After a contest with Ganesha over a mango Murugan fled his parents house and settled on this hill.
Palani Murugan Temple Hill. Photo Wkikipedia
Thai Poosam festival at Palani. Photo tripod.com

Kanchipuram Kamakshi Temple Shaivite 16th cent
Kanchipuram Kamakshi Amman Temple, no date - timeless...
Entrance to the Kamakshi Temple. Photo Russian Website
The temple is dedicated to the goddess Kamakshi, one of the forms of Shakhti. Kanchipuram Kamakshi Temple is an important part of the worship of Parvati. There are no traditional Parvati or Shakhti shrines in the city of Kanchipuram, apart from this temple, which is unusual for a city that has hundreds of traditional temples. The form of Kamakshi worshipped here is unusually benign. At other Shakhti sanctuaries animal and once human sacrifices were common, see, e.g.. Dakshin Kali near Kathmandu - which incidentally points at the close relationships between Southern Indian Hindu sanctuaries and the Kathmandu Valley. - It is believed that the Hindu saint Adi Sankaracharya led to the more peaceful representation of the goddess.

Amritsar Sikh Golden Temple 1605
Amritsar "Golden Temple" Sikh 1605 AD
The "Golden Temple" of the Sikhs in its tank. Photo by Rajja Dhillon, Panoramio

Hampi-Vijayanagar 1330-1565

Hampi

Hampi-Vijayanagara (1336–1565 AD )
Hampi is a small village and a pilgrims' destination in Karnataka. It lies on the northwestern edga of one of the largest archeological sites in India: Vijayanagar, the former capital of the last great Hindu empire by the same name.
Hampi village with its 15th-cent Virupaksha temple and a processional road leading to the Vijayanagara shrines. Photo from wikipedia
After the Moslems had destroyed the Hoysala kingdom (1313) and defeated the Wasalas (1320) they stopped their advance into South India.
In 1336 two brothers - Harihara and Bukka Sangama were sent to Hampi by the Delhi Sultanate to pacify that region. Rescinding their allegiance to the Sultan, the Sangamas established Vijayanagara as their capital and founded a last great Hindu empire, the successor of the Hoysalas.
In addition to its historical importance, Vijayanagara is also a sacred site, the location of Hanuman's kingdom. This legendary association, which extends to the identification of specific places mentioned in the Ramayana, was at the forefront of consciousness of the people who designed and constructed the city.
In 1565 a coalition of Moslem forces defeated king Ramaraja and sacked the royal capital. The fatally weakened Vijayanagar empire eventually fragmented into a collection of independent Nayaka kingdoms, ruled by their former governors.
Map of Vijayanagara:
For further reading and the original map go to vijayanagara.org

Hemakuta Hill
Hampi-Vijayanagara (1330–1565 AD ) Hemakuta Hill
View to the northeast from Hemakuta Hill. Virupaksha temple (with tower) in the valley; and the hills across the Tungabhadra river.
The Small Ganesha Temple (15th century) is located at the base of Hemakuta hill, near the modern village of Hampi. Ganesh is the sole occupant of the temple.
Phtotos and text from pbase.com

Virupaksha Temple
Hampi Virupaksha Temple
The temple, dedicated to Virupaksha-Pampa, the local river goddess, has an uninterrupted history from about the 7th century. The sanctuary existed well before the Vijayanagara capital was located here. Inscriptions referring to Shiva date back to the 9th and 10th centuries. What started as a small shrine grew into a large complex under the Vijayanagara rulers. Additions to the temple were made in the later Chalukyan and Hoysala periods, but most of the temple buildings are attributed to the Vijayanagar period.
Text and Photo from Wikipedia.

Walk along the Tungabhadra River
Hampi-Vijayanagara (1330–1565 AD ) A pleasant wal k along the Tungabhadra river begins at the bazaar, and proceeds east a kilometer or so to the Vitthala temple.
The River. This is the land of the rishis (sages), famous in the Ramayana as the monkey kingdom of Sugriva and his general, Hanuman. Photo travel.webshots.com
The King's Balance, The king, sitting in a swing suspended from the balance, would be ceremonially weighed against heaps of precious objects, which he would then distribute as gifts. Photo hobotraveler.com
Ranganatha Temple. This small temple along the path is dedicated to Ranganath, the reclining form of Vishnu.
Photo from art-and-archaeology.com

Ritual Tank
Hampi-Vijayanagara (1330–1565 AD ) Large Tank
The large tank measures 67m x 22m (223ft x 73ft), about 2/3 the length of an American football field. Water was brought in by aqueduct for special events (such as boat fights, perhaps), then drained out afterwards. The view faces west; a small group of people on the north side provides a sense of scale. Photo and Text from art-and-architecture.com

Great Platform
Hampi-Vijayanagara (1330–1565 AD ) Great Mahanavami Platform
According to a 16th-century Portuguese visitor, King Krishnadevaraya would ascend the platform during the Mahanavami festival, where he would perform worship and view the parades of animals, musicians and dancers, mock battles, and fireworks below.
Photo from Mary-Ann Campbell
The two lower courses, which were built during the first phase of construction, are inscribed in parallel bands with scenes of courtly life, including hunting scenes and processions of animals, soldiers, musicians, and dancers.
Photo from travelblog.org

Lotus Mahal
Hampi-Vijayanagara (1330–1565 AD ) Lotus Mahal
Lotus Mahal from the distance. Photo from travel.webshots
The building is a fascinating fusion of Indian and Islamic architecture. Its arches are Islamic, but its platform and towers are purely Indian.
Photo Mary-Ann Campbell

Krishna Temple
Hampi-Vijayanagara (1330–1565 AD ) Krishna Temple, 1516
This partly collapsed temple, located south of Hemakuta Hill, was built to celebrate a military victory of King Krishnadevaraya.
Phtoto from Mary-Ann Campbell

Narasimha monolith
Hampi-Vijayanagara (1330–1565 AD ) Narasimha monolith
The man-lion incarnation of Vishnu is seated beneath a serpent canopy in a yoga posture. The band around his legs helps him to hold the position for long periods of time.
This much-photographed statue has been extensively restored. It was commissioned in 1528 by king Krishnadevaraya, stands 6.7m (21ft) high, and is located just south of the Krishna temple.
Photo from Mary-Ann Campbell

Vitthala Temple
Hampi-Vijayanagara (1330–1565 AD ) Vitthala Temple, The 16th century temple is dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Vishnu.
East end of the temple complex, looking west. From front to back we see a square platform, the east face (rear) of a Garuda shrine which faces the temple, and the star-shaped mahamandapa (great pillared hall, 1554) of the temple itself. Photo travel.webshots
The Kalyana mandapa is an open pavilion. Its interior, surrounded by impressive columns, contains a platform in the center (very slightly raised circle, inside a square) for the performance of sacred dances. connected with the wedding ceremony of the God and his Shakti. The building in the background is the mandapa of the main temple.
This south view of the building shows the chariot.
Phtotos and text from Mary-Ann Campbell

Ramachandra Temple
Hampi-Vijayanagara (1330–1565 AD ) Ramachandra Temple
Ramachandra temple, also called Hazara Rama ("One thousand Ramas"), was built in the 1420s (with later additions) as a royal chapel dedicated to the cult of Rama. The temple is the hub of all the eastern roads that lead into the royal center. Its sculptural program centers on the Ramayana, with friezes from that epic being carried out on the temple walls.

"Elephant Stables"
Hampi-Vijayanagara (1330–1565 AD ) "Elephant Stables"
The original use of this building is not known. Beneath each dome is a single large chamber with a painted ceiling. The building is left-right symmetric about its central entrance, including the interior decorations. The lawn area must originally have been a dirt-floored parade ground. Photo by Mary-Ann Campbell

Jain India

Udayagiri, (Bubaneshvar) 1st BC- 2nd cent AD
Udayagiri (Bubaneshvara, Orissa) Caves 4th-6th cent AD
The caves on Udayagiri Hill. Photo by Steve Levy, Panoramio
Despite the fact that the sculptures in the caves clearly depict Vishnu and Shiva, Udayagiri is classified to be an early Jain? complex
Vishnu Varaha, Kushan, 2nd cent AD, Cave 5, Udayagiri,
Photo shunya.net
This large 4m-high relief sculpture is one of the icons of Indian art. It depicts Varaha, the boar incarnation of Vishnu, rescuing the Earth Goddess (Bhu Devi) from the engulfing Ocean. Varaha lifts Bhu Devi on his massive shoulder. Below him on the right a submissive naga king under a cobra - behind the naga King Chandragupta(?) in adoration.
Close to the ruins stands stands the remakable Heliodorus pillar, (Khamba Baba).
Heliodorus Pillar, 170 BC. Photo shunya.net.
The column bears an inscription announcing that it was a Garuda Pillar, erected in honour of Vasudeva by Heliodorous, a resident of Taxila, who had been sent to the court of Bhagabhadra as an envoy of the Gandhara-Greek monarch, Antialkidas.
This inscription is a valuable historical record, revealing both the relations that existed between this region and the Greek kingdoms of Gandhara, and the fact that th Greek ambassador had become a Hindu. The inclusion of the name of Antialkidas dates the pillar to 170 BC

Khandagiri, (Bubaneshvar) Jain?, 100 BC-100 AD
Khandagiri - Udayagiri, (Bubaneshvar), 100 BC-100 AD
Nine early cave temples located on Khandagiri Hill from the Chedi dynasty (2d century BC - 1st century AD).
Caves on Khandagiri Hill. 100 BC-100 AD
A single-faced lingam idicating that the caves were originally dug and used by Shaivites. Photos from shunya.net.

Ahichhatra Gupta, 5th cent AD
Ahichchatra Gupta 5th cent AD (Jain?
This new archeological site has yielded two exceptionally lovely Gupta sculptures of the river goddesses Ganga and Jamuna (now in the New Delhi Museum). It is unclear why the site is considered Jain in the literature. Photos from sunya.net
Ganga
Jamuna

Osian Jain 783 AD
Osian, Bramanic and Jain, 8th - 12th cent AD
Rajisthan's largest group of early Hindu and Jain temples lies strung out along the road at Osian, which from this point runs south 64 km to Jodhpur. The temples were mostly built in the Pratihara period, 8th - 9th century, except for Mahavira temple (Jain, mostly 11th century) and Sachiya Mata temple (Hindu, 11th - 12th century).
Harihara (Vishnu/Shiva) Temple, 8th century. Photo deraeco.com
Mithuna couple. Photo from picasaweb
The Osian Jain temples date mostly from the 10th - 11th century. They have been kept in worship, and continually restored, down to the present day.
The Mahavira Temple (11th cent) is an important Jain tirtha. Photo from Wikipedia

Girnar Jain Temple City 8th-12th cent
Junagadh, then called Girnar, was the capital of Gujarat under the Mauryas from the 4th century BC until the reign of Emperor Ashoka who embraced Buddhism. After his death (c 226 BC), it passed into the successive control of the Kshatrapas, Guptas and finally the Chudasanas. Hindu dominance lasted till the middle ages, when Muslim invaders established their supremacy. It remained under Muslim rule till India's independence.
Text and poto from Wikipedia

Shravana Belagola, Bahubali Statue, Jain 10thcent
Shravana Belagola, the staue of the Jain Lord Bahubali (sanscrit: Gommateshvara) (981 A.D)
This is the mnumental stone statue on the top of a hillock in Belagola. Bahubali is a revered hero in the Jain legends. His story is an example of the inner strength of the entire culture of India. He won everything from his brother and could have become an emperor, but he returned everything to the brother. Bahubali is considered to be the ideal man who conquers selfishness, jealousy, pride and anger. (Wikipedia)
Photo by tany, Panoramio

Ranakpur Chaumukha Temple 1439
Ranakpur Chaumukha Jain Temple, 1439, dedicated to Adinath
Photo by Shah Bhavin, Panoramio
This 15th century Jain temple at Ranakpur represents a culmination of Jain temple building in western India. It is dedicated to Adinath and features a complex floor plan with multistoried porches and balconies. The temple has a strong directional orientation, with entrances at the four compass points.
The interior is elaborately carved in white marble and decorated throughout with Jain saviors, plant and floral motifs, and other figures.
Photo by Fernando Mobu, Panoramio

Satrunjaya, Jain, 11th-19th cent
Satrunjaya-Shatrunjay, Jain temple city near Palitana, 11th-19th cent.
Some of the 863 temples of Satrunjaya were built in the 11th century. Construction activity, however, spanned 900 years. As successive worshippers of the non-violent Jain community designed their own temples, they cleared the crest of the hill, levelled it into terraces, walled and fortified most of them.
Because of its sanctity, every devout Jain aspires to climb to the top of the mountain at least once in his lifetime. The walk up the stone stairway hewn into the mountain face takes about an hour and a half. Food must neither be eaten nor carried on the way. The descent must begin before it is evening, for no soul can remain atop the sacred mountain during the night. The Gods are to be left alone overnight.
Photo from Niels Gutschow, Jan Piper, "Indien", DuMont Reiseführer, Köln 1978 (in German)

Islamic India

Kondugallur Cheraman Perumal Juma Masjid
625 AD
Kondugallur, Kerala, Cheraman Perumal Juma Masjid, 625 AD
built by Malik Ibn Dinar
The oldest Islamic community in India was founded in 625 in this tiny village on the Malabar Coast very close to the oldest Christian church (52) in India in which St. Thomas, the Syrian founder of the Christian community is buried, and the archeological site of Muziri, a Greek-Roman settlement. Neither the church nor the mosque are of architectural interest.

Samarkand Bibi-Khanum Mosque 1398-1405
Samarkand, Uzbekistan
Bibi Khanum Mosque - Masjid-i-Jami
1398-1405
Timurid
Photo of the mosque from the street after its dome and Ivan had been restored (1990s)
Photo Archnet.org
Before the last reconstruction (19870s-80s) only four massive fragments like enormous teeth and a minaret had survived of this mosque. The broken dome is hidden by the ivan. Soviet photo from 1968.

Samarkand Sir Dor Madresa 1619-1636
Samarkand, Uzbekistan
Registran
Sir Dor Madresa
1619-1636
Architects Abdul Jabbar and Mohammad Abbas
Shaybanid
The madrasa was commissiond by the Shaybanid general, Alchin Yalantush Bahadur in erratic stages between 1619 and 1636. A barely readable inscription attributes construction to a certain Abdul Jabbar and decoration to Mohammad Abbas. The site had originally housed a large tim or cupola covered trading market built by Timur's female consort, Tuman-Aka in the 14th century. Timur's successor, Ulugh Beg, had this tim dismantled, to build a domed khanqah or hospice, ancillary to his madrasa. Yalantush thus replaced a part of Ulugh Beg's original ensemble, and did not initiate a new one, as is often maintained..
For more photos from Samarkand go to Rolf's Samarkand 1977 and 1989

Chisht-i-Sharif, Gumbad, Mausolea 1167
Chisht-e Sharif, Khorasan, Afghanistan
Gumbad of Chisht Two Mausolea, Ghurid, 1167
The two free-standing domed structures are located on a plateau outside of Chisht-e-Sharif, a twelfth-century religious center that gave its name to the Chishtiyya order of Sufism. Inscriptions on both structures name Ghurid sultan Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam (1163-1203) as their patron. Their original function is uncertain, the attribution of mausolea is an assumption. Architecturally the two gumbats are excellent examples how Khorasan masters handled the problem of a circular dome on a square base with ease.
Text and photos Archnet.org

Delhi, Mosque of Qutb al-Din Aibak 1197-1199, 1305
Delhi, India Mosque of Qutb al-Din Aibak, 1197-1199, 1305
Quwwatu'l Islam, or 'the might of Islam' also known as Qutb Mosque, was the first mosque in Muslim Delhi, built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, its first Turkic Sultan. The mosque and its complex of associated buildings, including extensions, the Qutb Minar, several tombs, a gate, and other monuments, were built in the heart of the occupied Rajput citadel, on the ruin of twenty seven Hindu and Jain temples. The enclosure was subsequently enlarged northwards by Qutb-ud-din's successor, Shams-ud-din Ilutmish (r. 1211-36) and Ala-ud-din Khalji (r. 1296-1316).
Ruins of Qutb Mosque and the Minar.
Photo by Navin Bhatt, Panoramio
The original mosque was built using the components of the Hindu temples it replaced. Columns intricately carved with Hindu motifs were used intact.
Photo by Arturo Garcia, Panoramio

Ajmer Ardhai-din-ka Jhompra Masjid 1200-1206
Ajmer, Rajastan Ardhai-din-ka Jhompra Masjid, 1200-1206
The construction of the mosque is attributed to Qutb al-Din Aibak (1206-1210) The original mosque is thought to have been of modest proportions. The current form of the mosque is the result of the additions made between 1220 and 1229 by Shams al-Din Iltutmish (1211-1236). The mosque is made of yellow sandstone and many of the building materials are the spoils of razed Hindu and Jain temples. .
Photo by SINHA from Panoramio

Multan, Shah Rukn-i-'Alam Tomb 1320-1324
Multan, Pakistan Shah Rukn-i-'Alam Mausoleum 1320-1324, Tughluqid
Still subject to historical debate, the Mausoleum of the Suhrawardia saint Shaykh Rukn al-Din Abdul Fath is said to have been first built by Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq (1320-1325) for himself, yet later dedicated to the saint by Firuz Shah Tughlaq (reg. 1351-1388) at the request of Shaykh Sadr al-Din Muhammad, his adopted son and spiritual successor.
Also known as the Rukn-i-Alam or the pillar of the sky. It is the most prominent feature on the Multani skyline.
Text and photos from Archnet.org

Pandua Adina Masjid 1375
Pandua, Bengal, Adina Masjid, 1375
Tughluqid
In 1353 AD, Haji Shamsuddin Ilyas, the first independent nawab of Bengal, transferred his capital from the nearby (and now ruined) town of Gaur (32 km from Pandua) to Pandua. However, Pandua's glory was shortlived. In 1453 AD, the capital was transferred back to Gaur. Pandua's only celebrated building is the Adina Mosque.
Built by Sikandar Shah, the second sultan of the Ilyas dynasty, the Adina mosque is the only hypostyle mosque in Bengal. Similar in plan to the Great Mosque of Damascus, it is a rectangular, hypostyle structure, with an open central courtyard.
A series of secondary mihrabs runs along the whole western wall. In total, the 39 mihrabs, the minbar and other ornamentations are rigorously Islamic in their general conception but Hindu in almost all the details: small scalloped columns and plinths in the shape of lotus flowers, corbels, trilobate arches each with its sharp end cuspidated with a vase of flowers, volutes representing leaves, rhomboid lozenges and friezes of lotus petals. Along with the Hindu motifs, the interior of the mihrab niche is divided into panels containing the Islamic motif of the 'hanging lamp' commonly used in Bengal and is thought to be the visual representation of the Surah "Al-Nur", the light.
Triple-aisled south cloister viewed from southeastern corner of mosque
Interior columns
Central nave and main mihrab. The barrel vault has collapsed
Text and photos from Archnet.org

Srinagar Shah-e-Hamadan Mosque 1395
Srinagar, Kashmir , Shah-e-Hamadan Mosque, 1395
This mosque is an excellent example of indigenous wood architecture that draws inspiration from Buddhist, Hindu and Islamic architecture. Constructed by Sultan Sikandar and dedicated to the memory of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamdani, a Muslim saint from Hamadan, Persia, this mosque also serves as a khankah.
Ravaged by fire in 1480, it was reconstructed and expanded by Sultan Hassan Shah. In 1493 it was demolished and rebuilt as a two-story structure. Again in 1731 fire destroyed the mosque; Abul Barkat Khan reconstructed it.
View from the Jelum River
Interior of the many collumned prayer hall. The columns are single himalayan cedar trees. Photo from indoarch.org
Main entrance to Mosque Text and two photos from Archnet.org

Ahmedabad Jami' Masjid 1424
Ahmedabad, Gujarat Jamii Masjid 1424
Bahmanid
Built in 1424 by Bhamani ruler Ahmad Shah I (1411-1442), the Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad was probably the largest mosque constructed on the Indian subcontinent at the time. Conceived as part of the emperor's grandiose urban vision, the mosque lies to the south of a royal processional way that travels eastward from the Maidan-i Shah and the triple gateway known as Teen Darwaza. The central nave rises up to three stories in height and is overlooked by balconies from the central gallery enclosed by perforated screens.
Columns in the prayer hall
Interior view of the prayer hall from gallery level
Text and photos from Archnet.org

Ajmer Tomb of Khwaja Mu'inuddin Chisti 1230/ 16th cent
Ajmer, Darhhar, Tomb of Sufi Khwaja Mu'inuddin Chisti, 16th cent
The tomb of India's most venerated Sufi. Khwaja Moinuddin Chishty. He was born in Sajistan, Khorasan in 1141 and died in 1230 AD. Also known as Gharib Nawaz , he is the most influential Sufi saint of the Chishti Order of South Asia. Photo and text from Wikipedia

Dera Gazi Khan Tomb of Khazi Khan 1494
Dera Gazi Khan, Pakistan, Tomb of Gazi Khan, 1494, Timurid
I did not find the exact location of this unusual tomb of a gazi, a hero of the holy war.
Photo from Archnet.org

Bijapur Gol Gumbaz 1659
Bijapur, Gol Gumbaz 1659
Gol Gumbaz is the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah II (1627-57) of the Adil Shahi dynasty. Indian sultans, who ruled the Sultanate of Bijapur from 1490 to 1686. It is one of the biggest single chamber structures in the world and covers an area of 1,693 sqm, 300 sqm bigger than the better known Pantheon in Rome!
Photo Wikipedia

Sikandra Akbar's Tomb 1605
Sikandra, South Gate of the Tomb of Akbar, 1605, Mughal
Akbar's mausoleum was designed by the emperor, and modified by his son Jahangir after Akbar's death in 1605. It exhibits the transition in Mughal style from 16th century sandstone to 17th century white marble.
The minaretted South Gate, shown here, is the main entrance to the complex. Its placement conceals the view of the mausoleum behind it, a feature also found at the Taj Mahal. Other characteristic features include the bracketing of the large central arch by a smaller pair on either side, and the chamfering at the corners of the gate. Click here for a closeup of the central arch.
Photo and text yardbird.pbase.com

Lahore Wazir Khan Mosque 1634-1635
Lahore, Pakistan Wazir Khan Mosque 1634-1635
Mughal
The mosque was founded by Hakim Ilmud Din Ansari, a distinguished physician from Chiniot who received the Ministerial title of 'Wazir Khan' under the reign of Shah Jahan, and was later promoted to the position of Viceroy of Punjab.
Interior before the latest restauration In 1977 using local craftsmen and revived ancient techniques.

Lahore Badshahi Mosque 1673-1674
Lahore, Pakistan, Badshahi Mosque, 1673-1674, restored 1983, Mughal
The Badshaahi Mosque was founded by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (1658-1707) and completed between 1673 and 1674. The conservation work comprises the cladding of hujra facades with a veneer of red sandstone.

Delhi Mausoleum of Humayun 1562-72
Delhi, India, Mausoleum of Humayun, Mughal, 1562-72
Humayun's tomb is the first example of the monumental architecture that would characterize the subsequent Mughal imperial style. Commissioned by Humayun's senior widow, Haji Begam the tomb is the first grave of a Mughal emperor. Humayun's father Babur, who founded the dynasty, had requested out of piety that he be buried in a garden. Humayun's Tomb is now one of the best-preserved Mughal monuments in Delhi.
The tomb design is attributed to Sayyid Muhammad and his father, Mirak Sayyid Ghiyath (Mirak Mirza Ghiyas), Persian architects and poets active at the Timurid and later the Mughal courts.
Text and Photos from Archnet.org

Fatehpur Sikri Shayk Salim Chishti Tomb 1571-1580
Fatehpur Sikri, Shayk Salim Chishti Tomb, Friday Mosque Complex 1571-1580 Mughal
Fatephur Sikri, the abandoned city of Emperor Akhbar's dreams, is the most magnificent complex of Moghul India. It has an unusual foundation history
Shaikh Salim, a Chishti Sufi who lived in the village of Sikri came to imperial notice when he correctly predicted the birth of Akbar's son Jahangir. It was to honor this saint that Akbar, in 1571, established the palatial-religious complex of Fatehpur Sikri on the site of Shaikh Salim's village, making it his capital. The tomb of Shaikh Salim is of white marble, and sits in an enclosure with a pool. The entrance porch is held up by unusual, serpant-like supports. A verandah enclosed by a finely carved perforated screen surrounds the main tomb hall. At its center is the cenotaph, sheltered by a canopy decorated with mother-of-pearl. A wide marble dome covers the structure.

Fatehpur Sikri, Jami Masjid 1571-1574
Fatehpur Sikri, Rajasthan, Jami Masjid, Mughal, 1571-1574
The mosque, known as the 'Glory of Fatehpur Sikri', on the western side of the religious and palatial complex of the city, was built by Akbar to honor Shaikh Salim, the Chishti saint. It was the largest mosque of the Mughal Empire in its time. The main entrance into its large courtyard is through the Buland Darwaza, an enormous monumental gate. A large pistaq, a type of high arched gate of Timurid origins, leads into the main prayer hall, which is finished in red sandstone and white inlay. Paint and gilt add to the intricate ornamentation. Flanking the main hall are large, pillared side wings.
Exerior view from the east showing the arched entryway and colonnade.
Detail of a marble screen

Fatephur Sikri Jodh Bai Palace 16th cent
Fatephur Sikri, Rajesthan, Jodh Bai Palace, Mughal, 16th cent
View from afar
Also known as "Shabistan-I-Iqbal" (Principal Haram Sarai), it is the largest and most important zenana, or palace for the imperial women. Baths and latrines project to the south, a viaduct and splendid balcony, to the north. It has but one entrance facing east across a wide paved courtyard. It used to be connected to the Emperor's Daulat Khana, which was destroyed.
The center of the royal palace. Photos and text from Archnet.org
Photo from Visions.net

Delhi Jama Masjid Great Mosque 1644-58
Old Delhi, India, Jama Masjid, Great Mosque, Mughal, 1644-1658
The Jami Mosque is the principal mosque of Shahjahanabad, or "Old Delhi", the seventh Muslim city on the Delhi site. The mosque, like the city, was founded by Shah Jahan, its building supervised by 'Allami Said Khan and Fazl Khan. It is one of the largest in India.
Photo by ramses II, Panoramio
Interior.
Photo by by eulogio Panoramio
Dehli from the minaret.
Photo by Richard Guy Panoramio

Agra Taj Mahal 1632-1648
Agra, Taj Mahal, Mughal, 1632-1648
The Taj Mahal mausoleum was built by Shah Jahan in memory of his favorite wife Arjumand Banu Begam, better known by her title Mumtaz Mahal (d.1631), from which the name of the monument is taken.
Widely recognized as the pinnacle of classical Indo-Islamic architecture, the Taj Mahal is representative of Shah Jahan's interest in building and aesthetic innovation.
The new architectural style includes aspects that were to influence much of subsequent Indian architecture:
Symmetry along two sides of a central axis, new columnar styles, curvilinear forms, and symbolic decorations based on naturalistic plant motifs are all characteristics of the Shahjahani style that can be found in the Taj Mahal Complex.
To the mausoleum's west stands a triple-domed red sandstone mosque, and to its east the mosque's jawab or compositional echo.
It seems silly to add new photographs of the fabled building to the hundreds of Panoramios already on GE. So, I'll choose some new ones. Here is a poetic photo from across the Yamuna River.
Photo from the Russian Website
Another photo from the same website shows the architecturally interesting mosque facing the Taj Mahal for symmetry's sake, which is usually left out of the standard pictures.
The Mosque.
And finally one of the better of the frontal views which shows the magnificent ballance of this ensemble.

Aurangabad Bibi ka Maqbara 1660-1679 AD
Aurangabad Bibi Ka Maqbara 1660-1679 AD
Bibi Ka Maqbara built by Aurangzeb’s son, Azam Shah, in 1660-1679 AD as a loving tribute to his mother, Rabia-ud-Durrani . The ambience is overwhelmingly that of an imitation of the Taj. On close encounter, however, one realizes that the walls of the Maqbara are finished with a kind of high quality plaster which has a marble-like look. For that reason t is referred to as the 'poor man’s Taj'.
Initially Aurangzeb was not in favour of building a monument as lavish as the Taj. He blocked the movement of marble from Rajasthan, but Alam Shah prevailed. Only the onion dome was built with marble.
Photo by u_pohnerkar, Panoramio

Forts and Castles

Jaipur 12th-17th cent
Jaipur 1156 -17th cent
View of town from the western ridge. Photo by meow1913, Panoramio
In 1156 Rawal Jaisal, the sixth in succession from Deoraj, founded the fort and city of Jaisalmer, and made it his capital as he moved from his former capital at Lodhruva (which is situated about 15 km to the south-east of Jaisalmer). In 1294, the Bhatis so enraged the emperor Ala-ud-din Khilji that his army captured and sacked the fort and city of Jaisalmer, so that for some time it was quite deserted. After this there is nothing to record till the time of Rawal Sahal Singh, whose reign marks an epoch in Bhati history in that he acknowledged the supremacy of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan.
Hawa Mahal (the Palace of Winds.) Photo palacesandtigers.com

Amber Fort 16th cent
Amber Place Fort, Amber from a nearby hillside. Photo Fernando M travelblog.org

Jaisalmer 12th-17th cent
Jaisalmer, 1156 -17th cent
In 1156 Rawal Jaisal, the sixth in succession from Deoraj, founded the fort and city of Jaisalmer, and made it his capital as he moved from his former capital at Lodhruva (which is situated about 15 km to the south-east of Jaisalmer). In 1294, the Bhatis so enraged the emperor Ala-ud-din Khilji that his army captured and sacked the fort and city of Jaisalmer, so that for some time it was quite deserted. After this there is nothing to record till the time of Rawal Sahal Singh, whose reign marks an epoch in Bhati history in that he acknowledged the supremacy of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan.
The Fort of Jaisalmer. Photo by Viajero, Panoramio

Jodhpur 15th-17th cent
Jodhpur, Meherangarh Fort (16th cent)
Jodhpur was founded in 1459 by Rao Jodha, a Rajput chief of the Rathore clan. Rao Jodha succeeded in conquering the surrounding territory and thus founded a state which came to be known as Marwar.
Jodhpur's main attraction is the Meherangarh Fort (16th cent)
Photo from dpsahoo.com

Bundi 1345-17th cent
Bundi Palace and Fort (16th cent)
The Taragarh Fort, or 'Star Fort' is the most impressive of the city's structures. It was constructed in 1354 AD on a steep hillside. The largest of its battlements is the 16th century bastion known as the Bhim Burj
Bundi Place and Fort
Pink sari in the old fort. Photo Fernando M, travelblog.org

Udaipur 16th cent
Udaipur, 16th cent
After Emperor Akbar in the 16th century conquered he capital of the Sisodia Rajput family of the Mewar kingdom, Uday Singh built a new capital at Udaipur. He created Fatif and Pichola lakes, by constructing a dam. The lakes provide water to the city, as well as defend the city. Since a water body creates the "floating on water" image, the city came to be called "water city". The palace at the centre of Pichola Lake was later converted into the luxury, Lake Palace Hotel. Since there are so many places to marvel at, Udaipur is an architectural delight
City Palace on the banks of Pichora Lake. Photo from Wikipedia

Agra Red Fort Mughal 1565-17th cent
Agra, Red Fort, Mughal, 1565 - 17th cent
The most important fort built during the Mughal era is Agra Fort constructed by Akbar between 1565 and 1573. Akbar erected the walls, gates and the first buildings within the walls. Shahjahan built the imperial quarters and the mosque. A century later, Aurangzeb finished the outer walls of the fort.
Red Fort in the Jamuna river fog. Photo by Darren Ling, Panoramio
Within the fort is one large mosque and two smaller mosques. The larger mosque, Moti Masjid made of marble, is the crown of Mughal architecture. It is a tragedy that it has been closed to the public in recent years.
Moti Masjid Photo by S Dev Roy, Panoramio
Porch of Moti Masjid all in marble. Photo from the indoarch.org

Historical Atlas of India and Pakistan

Architectural Styles

Seleucid Greeks

Buddhist 200 BC-900 AD

Northern Hindu 400-1400 AD

Southern Hindu 800-1600 AD

Islamic 1000-1700 AD

Indus Valley-Harappa Cultures 7000-1900 BC

Indus Valley Civilization 7000-1600 BC

Post Indus Valley 1900-1000 BC

Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex 2200–1700 BC

Cemetery H Culture 19th-13th cent BC

Painted Grayware Culture

Gandharan-Swat Grave Culture

Greek Seleucid Empire 312 – 63 BC

Bactria 2500 BC- 200 AD
The history of Bactria goes back to Iranian, Greek, and Chinese times. New excavations at Tepe Fullol have unearthed a (possibly) Indo-Iranian civilisation (2500 BC) the exsistence of which had been entirely unknown
Alexander the Great spent a winter in Bactria (3rd cent BC) and got married to Oxana in Balkh. Thereafter the area was ruled for a while by Greek satraps. Being fertile and rich many people occupied Bactria subsequently.
Folding gold crown, part of the famed "Bactrian hoard" of treasures from Tilia Tepe, Afghanistan, 1st century AD. The crown was discovered in one of six graves of nomads of the ancient state of Bactria in 1978. The Soviet-Greek archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi unearthed the hoard—a crown, necklaces, belts, rings, headdresses set with precious jewels and a treasure of 2000 gold and silver coins.The artifact will be part of the U.S. exhibition “Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures from the National Museum, Kabul" in 2008 and 2009.
In the conterxt of the spread of early Buddhism it is notable that the archeological finds from the 2rd cernt AD onwards show a strong Buddhist presence. An early stupa (1st cent AD) was found 2005 in the vicinity of Balkh.
The archeological exploration of Bactria has just begun, promising surprises and a considerable enlargement of our historical knowledge. Photo from National Geographic Magazine

SKYTHIANS 500 BC- 200 AD
Skythians 500 BC- 200 AD
Fantasy painting of a royal Skythian couple by an unknown 19th cent (Russian?) artist.
Modern historical accounts of the Scythian wars often assume that the Scythian protagonists were a single tribe called the Saka (Sakai or Sakas). But earlier Greek and Latin texts suggest that the term Scythians referred to a much more widespread group of Central Asian peoples.
The confusion is caused by the fact tha what was considered Skythian territory covers the vast area from the Caspian to beyond the Pamirs and south into present day Pakistan and Afghanistan, and by the Greeks and Romans calling Sakas and Skythians by the same name:
To Herodotus (484-425 BC), the Sakai were the 'Amurgioi Skuthai' (i.e. Scythians from Ammyurgia). Strabo (Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo, 63 BC-AD 24 circa) suggests that the term Skuthais (Scythians) referred to the Sakai and several other tribes. Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' , c 92-175 AD), refers to the Sakai as Skuthon (a Scythian people) or the Skuthai (the Scythians) who inhabit Asia. According Strabo, Bactriana was taken by nomads like Asii/Asio, Pasianoi, Tokhario and Sakarauloi who had originally come from country from other side of Jaxartes (Central Asia). The prologus XLI of Historiae Philippcae also refers to the Scythian invasion of the Greek kingdom of Bactria and Sogdiana---the invaders are described as Saraucae.

Seleucids 312-63 BC
Seleucid Empire 312-63 BC

Parthians 100 BC-100 AD
This marker is part of a "History of Indian Art and Architecture." It includes a Historical Atlas of India and Pakistan. To see the photos and maps and read the descriptions you need to download the entire post. Parthians 100 BC - 100 AD

Saka or Indo-Skythians 100 AD
Indo-Skythian sculpture of a lion from Kunst.Zeit.de.
The Sakas were the Indo-Scythian branch of the Skythians who occupied Sogdiana-Bactria in the 1st cent AD, displacing Greek satrapies and Parthians who lived in the western parts of this region.. The Greek and Roman texts are highly confusing because they use the same name for the Sakas and the Skythians.
According Strabo, Bactriana was taken by nomads like Asii/Asio, Pasianoi, Tokhario and Sakarauloi who had originally come from country from other side of Jaxartes (Central Asia). The prologus XLI of Historiae Philippcae also refers to the Scythian invasion of the Greek kingdom of Bactria and Sogdiana---the invaders are described as Saraucae.
For a further discussion see my placemarker "Skythians" in this post.

Sassanids 200 BC- 300 AD
Indo-Sassanids 200 BC- 300 AD
The Sassanids, shortly after their victory over the Parthians, extended their dominion into Bactria during the reign of Ardashir I around 230 CE, then into Kushan territory (in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan) during the reign of his son Shapur I (240-270). Thus the Kushans lost their western territory (including Bactria and Gandhara) to the rule of Sassanid nobles named Kushanshahs or "Kings of the Kushans". Kartir, a high-priest that served as advisor to at least three of the early kings, instigated the persecution of non-Zoroastrians, that is, Christians, Buddhists, Jews, Hindus and - in particular - the Manichaeans, who were primarily in and from the eastern territories. The persecution ceased during the reign of Narseh (r. 293–302). Around 325, Shapur II was directly in charge of the southern part of the territory, while in the north the Kushanshahs maintained their rule until the rise of the Kidarites. The decline of the Kushans and their defeat by the Sassanids led to the rise of an indigenous Indian dynasty, the Guptas, in the fourth century. In 410 the Hephthalites or Indo-Hephthalites conquered Bactria and Gandhara, thus temporarily replacing the Indo-Sassanids.

Gandhara 100-3000 AD
Gandhara 100-300 AD

Seleucid Empire 312-63 BC

Greco-Bactria 200 BC

Parthians 100 BC

Saka-Indo Skythians 100 BC

Ghandara 100-300 AD

Sassanids 3rd-7th cent AD

Buddhist Empires 300 BC-1200 AD

500-100 BC Maghada Empires

5th cent BC Maghada

Rajgir 5th cent BC
This marker is part of "The Glory that was India - Art and Architecture." It includes a Historical Atlas of India and Pakistan. To see the photos and maps and read the descriptions you need to download the entire post.
Capital of Maghada Empire 5 cent. BC

305-185 BC Mauryan Empire

Paliputra-Patna 305-280 BC
This marker is part of "The Glory that was India - Art and Architecture." It includes a Historical Atlas of India and Pakistan. To see the photos and maps and read the descriptions you need to download the entire post.
Pataliputra-Patna Ashoka's Mauryan Capital 273-200 BC
With the rise of the Mauryan empire (273 BC.) the place became the seat of power and nerve centre of the sub-continent. From Pataliputra emperor Chandragupta Maurya (a contemporary of Alexander) ruled an empire, stretching from the Bay of Bengal to Afghanistan. Emperor Ashoka (260-218 BC), Chandragupta Maurya's grandson, transformed the wooden capital into a stone construction around 273 BC.

305 BC Chandragupta's Mauryan Empire

272-185 BC Ashoka's Empire

Ashoka's Edicts and Pillars 2nd cent BC
This marker is part of "The Glory of India"
Ashoka's edicts were the first written inscriptions in India after the ancient city of Harrapa fell to ruin. He did not write the inscriptions in formal Sanskrit but used the spoken vernacular form called Prakrit.
Mmost of his other edicts were either dismantled and transported to places of national importance after their discovery or formalised into a national monument. Rock edict of Ashoka in its original state are situated at Girnar and Kalsi in the Dehradun District of Uttranchal, India

Karli Ashoka Pillar
Ashoka Pillar. See the adjecent marker for the Karli Caves.

Sanchi Ashoka Pillar 2nd cent BC
Sanchi Ashoka Pillar, 2nd cent BC

Girnar Ashoka's 1st Edict
Girnar, Ashoka's first rock inscription, an example of Brahmi script, 3 cent BC
The Rock Edict at Girnar reads as follows:
"Gods-Beloved King Piyadasi, has caused this Dhamma edict to be written. Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice. Nor should festivals be held, for Gods-Beloved King Piyadasi sees much to object to in such festivals, although there are some festivals that Gods-Beloved King Piyadasi, does approve of.
Formerly, in the kitchen of Gods-Beloved King Piyadasi, hundreds of thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry. But now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer not always. And in time, not even these three creatures will be killed.

Sarnath Ashoka's Lion Pillar 250 BC
Sarnath Ashoka's Lion Pillar, 250 BC

Chiang Mai-Wat U Mong Ashoka Pillar 250 BC
Chiang Mai, Wat U Mong Ashoka's Lion Pillar, 250 BC
At Wat u Mong exists a complete Lion Pillar like in Sarnath but including the Wheel of the Dharma missing there. The four lions asnd the wheel are the national emblem of the Republic of India.
At Wat u Mong exists a complete Lion Pillar like in Sarnath but including the Wheel of the Dharma missing there. The four lions asnd the wheel are the national emblem of the Republic of India. (Photo Wikipedia

Shahbazgharhi Ashoka's Edict
Ashoka Edict

Vaishali Ashoka Pillar
Ashoka Edict

Lumbini Ashoka's Pillar
Ashoka Edict

Delhi Ashoka's Pillar

Bubaneshwar Ashoka Edict
This marker is part of a "History of Indian Art and Architecture." It includes a Historical Atlas of India and Pakistan. To see the photos and maps and read the descriptions you need to download the entire post. Bubaneshwar Ashoka Edict, 250 BC

Amaravati Ashola's Pillar

Kalsi Ashoka's Edict

Kandahar Ashoka's Edict

Ai Khanoum Ashoka's Edict

Bactra Ashoka's Edict

Sheberghan Ashoka's Edict

176 BC-240 AD Kushan Empire

Kushan Empire 176 BC-240 AD
From Ahin Posh Tepe -- One of the magnificent Gold Coins of Kanishka I, Kushan Empiror (128 AD). Kanishka on one and the Buddha on the reverse side of the coin. Found at Ahin Posh, Pakistan. Sold at a recent auction for: US$ 140,000 ! From Barry P. Murphy, Coin of the Week
The name Kushan derives from the Chinese term Guishuang, used to describe one branch of the Yuezhi, a loose confederation of Indo-European people who had been living in the Xinjiang Province of modern China. Driven west by Xiongnu between 176 and 160 BC, the five groups of the Yuezhi – the Xiumi, Guishuang (Kushans), Shuangmi, Xidun, and Dumi – reached the Hellenic kingdom of Baktria by 135 BC. They expelled the ruling Greek dynasties there, forcing these kings further south to settle along the Indus River. In the following century, the Guishuang forced the other tribes of the Yuezhi into a tight confederation. Now, as the Guishuang was the predominant power, the entire group became known by that name. This appellation was Westernized as Kushan, though the Chinese still referred to them as Yuezhi.
Like the Hellenistic Greeks and Romans, the Kushans were a multi-cultural society, incorporating much of the cultures they ruled into their own. Like their Baktrian predeccesors, early Kushan coins used Greek legends on the obverse, along with a translation in the local Karosthi script on the reverse. Beginning with Kanishka I, however, the Kushan language, written in an adaptation of the Greek alphabet with some local alterations, was used almost exclusively. From the time of Vima Taktu (Soter Megas), the Kushans also began to adopt Indian cultural elements. Embracing a wide variety of local Indian and Central Asian deities, they assimilated them with Greco-Roman types already prevalent in the region. Overall, the Kushan pantheon represented a religious and artistic syncretism of western and eastern elements.
An adept military leader who expanded Kushan power throughout much of Central Asia, Vima Kadphises was the first Kushan ruler to send a diplomatic mission to Rome, during the reign of Trajan. Vima Kadphises was also the first Kushan ruler to strike gold coins. Because the Kushans under his reign had extended their protective control over the Silk Road, the Roman gold they obtained through the trading of luxury items with the Roman Empire–-such as silk, spices, and other exotic goods–-provided the metal for the striking of the first Indian gold coins. In addition to the existing copper and silver denominations, Vima Kadphises introduced three gold denominations: the dinar (struck on an 8g weight standard), the double dinar, and a fractional quarter dinar.
Text from Coin Archives.com

Mathura Kushan Capital 127-147
Mathura, Kanishka's Kushan Capital 127-147 AD

60–240 AD Kushan Empire

Gupta Empire 280-550 AD

Gupta Empire 280-550 AD
The Gupta dynasty ruled from around 320 to 550 AD and covered most of Northern India, present Pakistan and western India and Bangladesh. The peace and prosperity created under the Guptas created a Golden Age in science, mathematics, astronomy, religion and Indian philosophy.

280–550 AD Gupta Empire

500-1400 AD Other Kingdoms

Sinhale (Sri Lanka) 500 BC - 1600 AD

500-1287 Pagan Kingdom

543-756 AD Badami-Chalukya Dynasty

9th-13th cent Mon Kingdom

Hindu Empires 10th-16th cent AD

1040-1346 Hoysala Empire

Halebidu

Hoysala Empire 1040–1346

1336-1565 Vijayanagar EMPIRE

Vijavanagar Empire 1336–1565 AD

Islamic Empires 1206-1858 AD

1206-1526 Delhi Sultantes

1206 -1526 Dehli Sultanates
Dehli Sultanates 1206 -1526
During the last quarter of the 12th century, Muhammad of Ghor invaded the Indo-Gangetic plain, conquering in succession Ghazni, Multan, Sindh, Lahore, and Delhi. Qutb-ud-din Aybak, one of his generals proclaimed himself Sultan of Delhi. In the 13th century, Shams ud din Iltumish (1211 - 1236), a former slave-warrior, established a Turkic kingdom in Delhi, which enabled future sultans to push in every direction.
Within the next 100 years, the Delhi Sultanate extended its sway east to Bengal and south to the Deccan, while the sultanate itself experienced repeated threats from the northwest and internal revolts from diisillusioned, independent-minded nobles. Power in Delhi was often gained by violence -- nineteen of the thirty-five sultans were assassinated.
The sultanate was in constant flux as five dynasties rose and fell: the Slave dynasty (1206-90), Khalji dynasty (1290-1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), Sayyid dynasty (1414-51), and Lodi dynasty (1451-1526). The Khilji dynasty, under Ala ud din (1296 - 1316) succeeded in bringing most of South India under its control.
Zafar Khan, a former provincial governor under the Tughluqs, revolted against his Turkic overlord and proclaimed himself sultan, taking the title Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah in 1347. The Bahmani Sultanate, located in the northern Deccan, lasted for almost two centuries. In 1527 it fragmented into five smaller states, known as the Deccan sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Berar, and Bidar).

1206–1526 Qutb-ut-din-Aybak

1294-1316 Ala ud din Khilji

1325-1351 Mohammad bin Tughlug

1352- 1451 Sayyid Dybasty

1347-1527 Bahmani Sultanates

1526-1858 Mughal Empires

1526-1530 Barbur's Indian Empire 1526-1530

Delhi and Agra, Barbur's Indian Empire 1526-1530
Agra, Barbur's Indian Empire 1526-1530
Babur (Persian Tiger), Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Zahir ud-din Muhammad Jalal ud-din Babur Padishah Ghazi (1483 – 1531) was a Turko-Mongol (Chaghatay-Turk),.a direct descendant of Timur Tamerlane through his father, and a descendant of Genghis Khan through his mother. His birth in Andijan, Fergana Valley, his milieu, training, and culture were Persian. Notwithstanding Babur was, like other Timurids, an orthodox Sunni Muslim.
Babur spent a large part of his life shelterless and in exile, aided only by friends and peasants. In 1497, Babur succeeded in capturing Samarkand. By 1501 Samarkand, his lifelong obsession, was lost again. Escaping with a small band of followers to Fergana. Building up a strong army, he was able to cross the snowy Hindu Kush and capture Kabul In 1504 and Herat in 1506.
Unable to capture Samarkand or hold Fergana Babur following Tamerlane's example set his eyes on the riches of Delhi. After a series of battles he defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in 1526 and quickly took possession of both Delhi and Agra.
In the following four years Barbur succeeded to lay the foundation of the long-lasting Indian Moghul Empire.

1556–1605 Akbar's Empire

Sikandra Akbar's Empire1556 -1605
Akbar's Empire 1556–1605
Sikandra Akbar's Tomb 1605
Akbar hunting with tigers. Miniature from the Akbarnameh, Photo from Wikipedia
Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar the Great (1542 – 1605) was the son of Nasiruddin Humayun whom he succeeded as ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1556 to 1605.
Akbar was a polymath: an architect, artisan, artist, armorer, blacksmith, carpenter, construction worker, emperor, engineer, general, inventor, animal trainer (reputedly keeping thousands of hunting cheetahs during his reign and training many himself), lacemaker, technologist and theologian. His most lasting contributions were to the arts

1627-1658 Shah Jahan's Empire

Agra, Shah Jahan 1627-1658

1658-1707 Shah Aurangzep